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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  94        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  96        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  97        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  98        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  99        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 100        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 101        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 102        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 103        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 104        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 107        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 111            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 112        ),
 113        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 116        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 117        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 118        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 119        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 120        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 121        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 122        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 123        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 130        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 132            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 133        ),
 134        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 136        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 137        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 138        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 139        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 141        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 142        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 143        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 144        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 145        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 146        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 149        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 151        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 152        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 153        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 154        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 155        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 156        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 158        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 160    }
 161
 162    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 163    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 164    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 165
 166    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 167    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 168    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 169
 170    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 171    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 174    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 175
 176    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 177    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 178
 179    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 180    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 181
 182    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 183    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 184
 185    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 186    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 187
 188    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 189    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 192    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 193
 194    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 195    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 196
 197    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 198    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 199
 200    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 201    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 202
 203    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 204    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 205
 206    # Whether join hints should be generated
 207    JOIN_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether table hints should be generated
 210    TABLE_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # Whether query hints should be generated
 213    QUERY_HINTS = True
 214
 215    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 216    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 217
 218    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 219    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 220
 221    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 222    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 223
 224    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 225    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 226
 227    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 228    RETURNING_END = True
 229
 230    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 231    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 232
 233    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 234    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 235
 236    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 237    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 238
 239    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 240    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 241
 242    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 243    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 244    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 245    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 246
 247    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 248    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 249
 250    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 251    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 252
 253    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 254    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 255
 256    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 257    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 258
 259    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 260    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 261
 262    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 263    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 264
 265    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 266    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 267
 268    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 270
 271    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 273
 274    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 275    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 276
 277    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 278    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 279
 280    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 281    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 282
 283    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 284    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 285
 286    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 287    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 288
 289    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 290    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 291
 292    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 293    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 294
 295    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 296    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 297
 298    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 299    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 300
 301    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 302    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 303
 304    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 305    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 306
 307    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 308    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 309
 310    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 311    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 312
 313    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 314    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 315
 316    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 317    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 318
 319    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 320    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 321
 322    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 323    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 324    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 325
 326    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 327    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 328
 329    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 331
 332    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 333    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 334
 335    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 336    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 337
 338    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 339    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 340
 341    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 342    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 343
 344    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 345    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 346    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 347    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 350    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 351
 352    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 353    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 354
 355    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 356    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 357
 358    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 359    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 360
 361    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 363
 364    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 365    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 366
 367    # The HEX function name
 368    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 369
 370    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 371    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 372
 373    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 374    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 375
 376    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 377    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 378
 379    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 380        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 388        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 389        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 390    }
 391
 392    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 393        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 394        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 395        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 396        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 397        "DAYS": "DAY",
 398        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 399        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 400        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 401        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 402    }
 403
 404    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 405        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 406        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 407        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 408        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 409        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 410            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 411            if e.args.get("windows")
 412            else ""
 413        ),
 414    }
 415
 416    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 417
 418    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 419
 420    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 421    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 422
 423    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 424        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 426        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 432        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 437        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 439        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 447        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 449        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 450        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 452        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 456        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 457        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 462        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 463        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 464        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 465        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 466        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 468        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 471        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 474        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 482        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 486        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 488        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 489        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 492        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 495        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 503        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 504        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505    }
 506
 507    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 508    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 509
 510    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 511    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 512        exp.Create,
 513        exp.Delete,
 514        exp.Drop,
 515        exp.From,
 516        exp.Insert,
 517        exp.Join,
 518        exp.Select,
 519        exp.SetOperation,
 520        exp.Update,
 521        exp.Where,
 522        exp.With,
 523    )
 524
 525    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 526    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 527        exp.Binary,
 528        exp.SetOperation,
 529    )
 530
 531    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 532    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 533        exp.Column,
 534        exp.Literal,
 535        exp.Neg,
 536        exp.Paren,
 537    )
 538
 539    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 540        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 541        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 542        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 543        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 544    }
 545
 546    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 547    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 548
 549    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 550
 551    __slots__ = (
 552        "pretty",
 553        "identify",
 554        "normalize",
 555        "pad",
 556        "_indent",
 557        "normalize_functions",
 558        "unsupported_level",
 559        "max_unsupported",
 560        "leading_comma",
 561        "max_text_width",
 562        "comments",
 563        "dialect",
 564        "unsupported_messages",
 565        "_escaped_quote_end",
 566        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 567        "_next_name",
 568    )
 569
 570    def __init__(
 571        self,
 572        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 573        identify: str | bool = False,
 574        normalize: bool = False,
 575        pad: int = 2,
 576        indent: int = 2,
 577        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 578        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 579        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 580        leading_comma: bool = False,
 581        max_text_width: int = 80,
 582        comments: bool = True,
 583        dialect: DialectType = None,
 584    ):
 585        import sqlglot
 586        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 587
 588        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 589        self.identify = identify
 590        self.normalize = normalize
 591        self.pad = pad
 592        self._indent = indent
 593        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 594        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 595        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 596        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 597        self.comments = comments
 598        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 599
 600        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 601        self.normalize_functions = (
 602            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 603        )
 604
 605        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 606        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 607            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 608        )
 609        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 610            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 611        )
 612
 613        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 614
 615    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 616        """
 617        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 618
 619        Args:
 620            expression: The syntax tree.
 621            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 622                it is safer to copy.
 623
 624        Returns:
 625            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 626        """
 627        if copy:
 628            expression = expression.copy()
 629
 630        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 631
 632        self.unsupported_messages = []
 633        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 634
 635        if self.pretty:
 636            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 637
 638        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 639            return sql
 640
 641        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 642            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 643                logger.warning(msg)
 644        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 645            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 646
 647        return sql
 648
 649    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 650        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 651        if (
 652            not expression.parent
 653            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 654            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 655        ):
 656            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 657
 658            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 659
 660        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 661            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 662
 663            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 664
 665        return expression
 666
 667    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 668        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 669            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 670        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 671
 672    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 673        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 674
 675    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 676        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 677
 678    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 679        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 680        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 681        return comment
 682
 683    def maybe_comment(
 684        self,
 685        sql: str,
 686        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 687        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 688        separated: bool = False,
 689    ) -> str:
 690        comments = (
 691            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 692            if self.comments
 693            else None
 694        )
 695
 696        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 697            return sql
 698
 699        comments_sql = " ".join(
 700            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 701        )
 702
 703        if not comments_sql:
 704            return sql
 705
 706        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 707
 708        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 709            return (
 710                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 711                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 712                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 713            )
 714
 715        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 716
 717    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 718        this_sql = (
 719            self.sql(expression)
 720            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 721            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 722        )
 723        if not this_sql:
 724            return "()"
 725
 726        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 727        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 728
 729    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 730        original = self.identify
 731        self.identify = False
 732        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 733        self.identify = original
 734        return result
 735
 736    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 737        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 738            return name.upper()
 739        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 740            return name.lower()
 741        return name
 742
 743    def indent(
 744        self,
 745        sql: str,
 746        level: int = 0,
 747        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 748        skip_first: bool = False,
 749        skip_last: bool = False,
 750    ) -> str:
 751        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 752            return sql
 753
 754        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 755        lines = sql.split("\n")
 756
 757        return "\n".join(
 758            (
 759                line
 760                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 761                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 762            )
 763            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 764        )
 765
 766    def sql(
 767        self,
 768        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 769        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 770        comment: bool = True,
 771    ) -> str:
 772        if not expression:
 773            return ""
 774
 775        if isinstance(expression, str):
 776            return expression
 777
 778        if key:
 779            value = expression.args.get(key)
 780            if value:
 781                return self.sql(value)
 782            return ""
 783
 784        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 785
 786        if callable(transform):
 787            sql = transform(self, expression)
 788        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 789            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 790
 791            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 792                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 793            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 794                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 795            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 796                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 797            else:
 798                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 799        else:
 800            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 801
 802        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 803
 804    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 805        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 806        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 807        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 808
 809    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 810        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 811        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 812        options = expression.args.get("options")
 813        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 814        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 815        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 816        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 817        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 818
 819    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 820        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 821            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 822        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 823        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 824
 825    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 826        return ".".join(
 827            self.sql(part)
 828            for part in (
 829                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 830                expression.args.get("db"),
 831                expression.args.get("table"),
 832                expression.args.get("this"),
 833            )
 834            if part
 835        )
 836
 837    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 838        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 839
 840        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 841            join_mark = ""
 842            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 843
 844        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 845
 846    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 848        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 849        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 850        return f"{position}{this}"
 851
 852    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 853        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 854        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 855        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 856        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 857        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 858        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 859        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 860        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 861
 862        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 863            kind = ""
 864
 865        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 866
 867    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 869        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 870        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 871
 872    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 874        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 875            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 876        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 877            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 878        else:
 879            persisted = ""
 880        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 881
 882    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 883        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 884
 885    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 886        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 887            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 888        else:
 889            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 890
 891        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 892
 893    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 894        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 895    ) -> str:
 896        this = ""
 897        if expression.this is not None:
 898            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 899            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 900
 901        start = expression.args.get("start")
 902        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 903        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 904        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 905        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 906        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 907        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 908        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 909        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 910        cycle_sql = ""
 911
 912        if cycle is not None:
 913            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 914            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 915
 916        sequence_opts = ""
 917        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 918            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 919            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 920
 921        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 922        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 923
 924        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 925
 926    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 927        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 928    ) -> str:
 929        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 930        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 931        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 932
 933    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 934        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 935    ) -> str:
 936        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 937
 938    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 939        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 940
 941    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 943
 944    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 945        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 946        if desc is not None:
 947            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 948        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 949
 950    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 952        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 953        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 954        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 955        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 956        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 957        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 958
 959    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 960        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 961
 962    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 963        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 964        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 965        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 966
 967        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 968
 969        properties_sql = ""
 970        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 971            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 972        ):
 973            properties_sql = self.sql(
 974                exp.Properties(
 975                    expressions=[
 976                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 977                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 978                    ]
 979                )
 980            )
 981
 982            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 983                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 984            elif not self.pretty:
 985                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 986                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 987
 988        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 989        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 990
 991        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 992        if expression_sql:
 993            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 994
 995            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 996                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 997                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 998                        exp.Properties(
 999                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1000                        ),
1001                        wrapped=False,
1002                    )
1003                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1004                else:
1005                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1006
1007        postindex_props_sql = ""
1008        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1009            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1010                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1011                wrapped=False,
1012                prefix=" ",
1013            )
1014
1015        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1016        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1017        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1018
1019        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1020        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1021
1022        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1023        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1024            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1025                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1026                sep=" ",
1027                prefix=" ",
1028                wrapped=False,
1029            )
1030
1031        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1032
1033        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1034        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1035            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1036                exp.Properties(
1037                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1038                ),
1039                sep=" ",
1040                prefix=" ",
1041                wrapped=False,
1042            )
1043
1044        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1045        no_schema_binding = (
1046            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1047        )
1048
1049        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1050        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1051
1052        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1053        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1054
1055    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1056        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1057        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1058        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1059        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1060        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1061        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1062        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1063        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1064        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1065        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1066
1067        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1068        if cache is None:
1069            cache_str = ""
1070        elif cache is True:
1071            cache_str = " CACHE"
1072        else:
1073            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1074
1075        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1076        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1077
1078        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1079
1080    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1082        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1083        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1084        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1085
1086    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1087        style = expression.args.get("style")
1088        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1089        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1090
1091    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1092        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1093        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1094
1095    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1096        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1097        if with_:
1098            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1099        return sql
1100
1101    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1102        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1103        recursive = (
1104            "RECURSIVE "
1105            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1106            else ""
1107        )
1108
1109        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1110
1111    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1112        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1113
1114        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1115        if materialized is False:
1116            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1117        elif materialized:
1118            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1119
1120        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1121
1122    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1123        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1124        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1125        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1126
1127        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1128            columns = ""
1129            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1130
1131        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1132            alias = self._next_name()
1133
1134        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1135
1136    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1137        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1138        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1139            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1140        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1141
1142    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1143        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1144        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1145            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1146        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1147
1148    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1150        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1151            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1152        return this
1153
1154    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1156        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1157
1158        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1159            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1160            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1161        else:
1162            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1163            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1164
1165        if escape:
1166            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1167            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1168        else:
1169            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1170            escape_sql = ""
1171
1172        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1173            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1174
1175        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1176
1177    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1178        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1179        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1180
1181    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1184        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1185        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1186
1187    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1188        type_value = expression.this
1189
1190        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1191            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1192        else:
1193            type_sql = (
1194                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1195                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1196                else type_value
1197            )
1198
1199        nested = ""
1200        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1201        values = ""
1202
1203        if interior:
1204            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1205                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1206                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1207                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1208                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1209                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1210            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1211                nested = f" {interior}"
1212            else:
1213                nested = f"({interior})"
1214
1215        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1216        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1217            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1218            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1219        ):
1220            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1221
1222        return type_sql
1223
1224    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1225        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1226        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1227        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1228        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1229
1230    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1232        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1233        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1234        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1235        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1236        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1237        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1238        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1239        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1240        if self.RETURNING_END:
1241            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1242        else:
1243            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1244        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1245
1246    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1248        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1249        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1250        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1251        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1252        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1253        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1254        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1255        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1256        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1257        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1258        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1259        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1260
1261    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1262        return self.set_operations(expression)
1263
1264    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1265        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1266
1267    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1268        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1269        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1270        count = expression.args.get("count")
1271        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1272        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1273            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1274        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1275        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1276
1277    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1278        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1279            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1280            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1281            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1282
1283        agg = expression.this
1284        agg_arg = agg.this
1285        cond = expression.expression.this
1286        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1287        return self.sql(agg)
1288
1289    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1290        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1291            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1292            return ""
1293
1294        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1295
1296    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1297        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1298        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1299        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1300        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1301        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1302        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1303        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1304        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1305        if include:
1306            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1307        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1308        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1309        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1310        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1311        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1312        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1313
1314        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1315
1316    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1317        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1318        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1319        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1320        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1321        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1322        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1323        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1324
1325        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1326
1327        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1328        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1329
1330    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1331        text = expression.name
1332        lower = text.lower()
1333        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1334        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1335        if (
1336            expression.quoted
1337            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1338            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1339            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1340        ):
1341            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1342        return text
1343
1344    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1345        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1346        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1347            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1348
1349        return text
1350
1351    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1352        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1353        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1354            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1355        return text
1356
1357    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1358        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1359        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1360        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1361        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1362        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1363
1364    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1365        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1366        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1367
1368    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1369        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1370
1371    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1372        root_properties = []
1373        with_properties = []
1374
1375        for p in expression.expressions:
1376            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1377            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1378                with_properties.append(p)
1379            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1380                root_properties.append(p)
1381
1382        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1383        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1384
1385        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1386            with_props = " " + with_props
1387
1388        return root_props + with_props
1389
1390    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1391        if properties.expressions:
1392            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1393        return ""
1394
1395    def properties(
1396        self,
1397        properties: exp.Properties,
1398        prefix: str = "",
1399        sep: str = ", ",
1400        suffix: str = "",
1401        wrapped: bool = True,
1402    ) -> str:
1403        if properties.expressions:
1404            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1405            if expressions:
1406                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1407                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1408        return ""
1409
1410    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1411        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1412
1413    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1414        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1415        for p in properties.expressions:
1416            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1417            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1418                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1419            else:
1420                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1421
1422        return properties_locs
1423
1424    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1425        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1426            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1427        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1428
1429    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1430        property_cls = expression.__class__
1431        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1432            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1433
1434        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1435        if not property_name:
1436            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1437
1438        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1439
1440    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1441        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1442            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1443            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1444
1445            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1446            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1447                like = f"({like})"
1448
1449            return like
1450
1451        if expression.expressions:
1452            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1453
1454        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1455        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1456
1457    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1458        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1459        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1460        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1461
1462    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1463        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1464        local = expression.args.get("local")
1465        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1466        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1467        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1468        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1469        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1470
1471    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1472        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1473        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1474        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1475
1476    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1477        if expression.args.get("default"):
1478            property = "DEFAULT"
1479        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1480            property = "ON"
1481        else:
1482            property = "OFF"
1483        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1484
1485    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1486        if expression.args.get("no"):
1487            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1488        if expression.args.get("default"):
1489            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1490
1491        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1492        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1493
1494    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1495        default = expression.args.get("default")
1496        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1497        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1498        if default or minimum or maximum:
1499            if default:
1500                prop = "DEFAULT"
1501            elif minimum:
1502                prop = "MINIMUM"
1503            else:
1504                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1505            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1506        units = expression.args.get("units")
1507        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1508        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1509
1510    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1511        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1512        always = expression.args.get("always")
1513        default = expression.args.get("default")
1514        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1515        never = expression.args.get("never")
1516
1517        if autotemp is not None:
1518            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1519        elif always:
1520            prop = "ALWAYS"
1521        elif default:
1522            prop = "DEFAULT"
1523        elif manual:
1524            prop = "MANUAL"
1525        elif never:
1526            prop = "NEVER"
1527        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1528
1529    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1530        no = expression.args.get("no")
1531        no = " NO" if no else ""
1532        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1533        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1534        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1535        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1536        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1537
1538    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1539        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1540            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1541        if expression.this:
1542            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1543            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1544            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1545
1546        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1547        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1548        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1549
1550    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1552
1553        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1554        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1555            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1556        else:
1557            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1558
1559        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1560
1561    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1562        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1563        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1564        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1565        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1566        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1567        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1568        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1569
1570    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1571        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1572        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1573        statistics_sql = ""
1574        if statistics is not None:
1575            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1576        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1577
1578    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1580        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1581        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1582        data_consistency = (
1583            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1584        )
1585        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1586        retention_period = (
1587            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1588        )
1589
1590        if this:
1591            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1592        else:
1593            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1594
1595        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1596
1597        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1598
1599    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1600        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1601        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1602
1603        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1604            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1605        else:
1606            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1607
1608        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1609        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1610        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1611        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1612        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1613        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1614        if is_function:
1615            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1616        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1617
1618        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1619        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1620        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1621        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1622        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1623        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1624        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1625        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1626
1627        if self.RETURNING_END:
1628            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1629        else:
1630            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1631
1632        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1633        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1634
1635    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1636        return self.set_operations(expression)
1637
1638    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1639        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1640
1641    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1642        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1643
1644    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1645        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1646        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1648        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1649        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1650
1651    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1652        return expression.name
1653
1654    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1655        return expression.name
1656
1657    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1658        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1659
1660        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1661        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1662
1663        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1664        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1665        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1666
1667        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1668        if expressions:
1669            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1670            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1671
1672        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1673
1674    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1675        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1676
1677    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1678        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1679        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1680        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1681        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1682        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1683        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1684        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1685        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1686        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1687        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1688        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1689        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1690        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1691
1692    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1693        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1694
1695    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1696        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1697        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1698        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1699        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1700
1701    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1703        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1704        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1705        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1706
1707    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1708        return ".".join(
1709            self.sql(part)
1710            for part in (
1711                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1712                expression.args.get("db"),
1713                expression.args.get("this"),
1714            )
1715            if part is not None
1716        )
1717
1718    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1719        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1720        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1721        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1722        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1723        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1724        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1725        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1726        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1727        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1728        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1729        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1730        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1731        joins = self.indent(
1732            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1733        )
1734        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1735
1736        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1737        if file_format:
1738            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1739            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1740            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1741
1742        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1743        if ordinality:
1744            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1745            alias = ""
1746
1747        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1748        if when:
1749            table = f"{table} {when}"
1750
1751        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1752
1753    def tablesample_sql(
1754        self,
1755        expression: exp.TableSample,
1756        sep: str = " AS ",
1757        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1758    ) -> str:
1759        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1760            table = expression.this.copy()
1761            table.set("alias", None)
1762            this = self.sql(table)
1763            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1764        else:
1765            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1766            alias = ""
1767
1768        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1769        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1770        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1771        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1772        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1773        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1774        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1775        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1776        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1777
1778        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1779        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1780            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1781
1782        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1783        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1784            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1785
1786        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1787        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1788            expr = f"({expr})"
1789
1790        return (
1791            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1792        )
1793
1794    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1795        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1796
1797        if expression.this:
1798            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1799            if not expressions:
1800                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1801
1802            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1803            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1804            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1805            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1806            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1807
1808        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1809        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1810        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1811        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1812        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1813        if include_nulls is not None:
1814            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1815        else:
1816            nulls = ""
1817        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1818
1819    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1820        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1821        kind = expression.text("kind")
1822        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1823        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1824
1825    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1826        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1827
1828    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1830        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1831        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1832        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1833        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1834        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1835        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1836        if self.RETURNING_END:
1837            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1838        else:
1839            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1840        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1841        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1842
1843    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1844        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1845
1846        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1847        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1848            args = self.expressions(expression)
1849            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1850            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1851            values = (
1852                f"({values})"
1853                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1854                else values
1855            )
1856            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1857
1858        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1859        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1860        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1861
1862        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1863
1864        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1865            row = tup.expressions
1866
1867            if i == 0 and column_names:
1868                row = [
1869                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1870                ]
1871
1872            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1873
1874        if self.pretty:
1875            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1876            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1877            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1878            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1879            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1880
1881        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1882        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1883        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1884
1885    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1886        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1887
1888    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1889        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1890        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1891        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1892
1893    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1894        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1895
1896    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1897        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1898        if group_by_all is True:
1899            modifier = " ALL"
1900        elif group_by_all is False:
1901            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1902        else:
1903            modifier = ""
1904
1905        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1906
1907        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1908        grouping_sets = (
1909            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1910        )
1911
1912        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1913        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1914            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1915        else:
1916            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1917            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1918
1919        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1920        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1921            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1922        else:
1923            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1924            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1925
1926        groupings = csv(
1927            grouping_sets,
1928            cube_sql,
1929            rollup_sql,
1930            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1931            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1932        )
1933
1934        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1935            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1936
1937        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1938
1939    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1940        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1941        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1942
1943    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1944        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1945        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1946        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1947        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1948        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1949        return start + connect
1950
1951    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1952        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1953
1954    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1955        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1956            side = None
1957        else:
1958            side = expression.side
1959
1960        op_sql = " ".join(
1961            op
1962            for op in (
1963                expression.method,
1964                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1965                side,
1966                expression.kind,
1967                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1968            )
1969            if op
1970        )
1971        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1972        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1973        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1974        using = expression.args.get("using")
1975
1976        if not on_sql and using:
1977            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1978
1979        this = expression.this
1980        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1981
1982        if on_sql:
1983            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1984            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1985            if using:
1986                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1987            else:
1988                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1989        elif not op_sql:
1990            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1991                return f" {this_sql}"
1992
1993            return f", {this_sql}"
1994
1995        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1996            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1997
1998        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1999
2000    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2001        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2002        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2003        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2004
2005    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2006        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2007
2008        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2009        if cross_apply is True:
2010            op = "INNER JOIN "
2011        elif cross_apply is False:
2012            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2013        else:
2014            op = ""
2015
2016        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2017
2018    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2020
2021        if expression.args.get("view"):
2022            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2023            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2024            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2025            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2026            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2027            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2028
2029        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2030        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2031        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2032
2033    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2035
2036        args = [
2037            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2038            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2039            if e
2040        ]
2041
2042        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2043        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2044        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2045        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2046
2047        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2048
2049    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2051        value = expression.expression
2052        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2053        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2054        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2055        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2056
2057    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2058        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2059        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2062        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2063        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2064        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2065        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2066
2067    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2068        expressions = (
2069            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2070        )
2071        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2072        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2073
2074    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2075        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2076
2077    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2078        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2079            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2080            return ""
2081
2082        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2083        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2084        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2085        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2086
2087        if wait is not None:
2088            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2089                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2090            else:
2091                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2092
2093        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2094
2095    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2096        text = expression.this or ""
2097        if expression.is_string:
2098            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2099        return text
2100
2101    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2102        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2103            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2104            text = "".join(
2105                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2106            )
2107
2108        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2109            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2110        )
2111
2112    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2113        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2114        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2115        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2116        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2117        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2118        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2119        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2120        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2121        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2122        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2123        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2124
2125    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2126        return "NULL"
2127
2128    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2129        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2130
2131    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2134        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2135        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2136        interpolated_values = [
2137            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2138            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2139        ]
2140        interpolate = (
2141            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2142        )
2143        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2144
2145    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2146        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2147        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2148        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2149        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2150        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2151        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2152        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2153
2154    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2155        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2156
2157    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2158        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2159
2160    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2161        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2162
2163    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2164        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2165        asc = not desc
2166
2167        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2168        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2169        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2170        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2171        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2172
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174
2175        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2176        nulls_sort_change = ""
2177        if nulls_first and (
2178            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2179        ):
2180            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2181        elif (
2182            nulls_last
2183            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2184            and not nulls_are_last
2185        ):
2186            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2187
2188        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2189        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2190            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2191            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2192                self.unsupported(
2193                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2194                )
2195                nulls_sort_change = ""
2196            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2197                if expression.this.is_int:
2198                    self.unsupported(
2199                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2200                    )
2201                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2202                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2203                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2204                nulls_sort_change = ""
2205
2206        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2207        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2208
2209        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2210
2211    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2212        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2213        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2214
2215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2216
2217        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2218
2219    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2220        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2221        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2222        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2223        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2224        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2225        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2226        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2227        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2228        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2229        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2230        definition_sqls = [
2231            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2232            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2233        ]
2234        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2235        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2236        body = "".join(
2237            (
2238                partition,
2239                order,
2240                measures,
2241                rows,
2242                after,
2243                pattern,
2244                define,
2245            )
2246        )
2247        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2248        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2249        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2250
2251    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2252        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2253
2254        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2255            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2256        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2257            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2258
2259        return csv(
2260            *sqls,
2261            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2262            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2263            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2264            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2265            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2266            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2267            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2268            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2269            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2270            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2271            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2272            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2273            self.options_modifier(expression),
2274            sep="",
2275        )
2276
2277    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2278        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2279        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2280
2281    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2282        return ""
2283
2284    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2285        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2286    ) -> t.List[str]:
2287        return [
2288            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2289            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2290        ]
2291
2292    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2293        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2294        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2295        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2296
2297    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2298        into = expression.args.get("into")
2299        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2300            into.pop()
2301
2302        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2303        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2304        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2305        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2306
2307        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2308        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2309            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2310            limit.pop()
2311        else:
2312            top = ""
2313
2314        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2315
2316        if kind:
2317            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2318                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2319            else:
2320                if kind == "STRUCT":
2321                    expressions = self.expressions(
2322                        sqls=[
2323                            self.sql(
2324                                exp.Struct(
2325                                    expressions=[
2326                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2327                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2328                                        else e
2329                                        for e in expression.expressions
2330                                    ]
2331                                )
2332                            )
2333                        ]
2334                    )
2335                kind = ""
2336
2337        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2338        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2339        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2340        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2341        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2342            expression,
2343            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2344            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2345            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2346        )
2347
2348        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2349
2350        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2351            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2352                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2353            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2354                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2355            else:
2356                table_kind = ""
2357            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2358
2359        return sql
2360
2361    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2364        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2365
2366    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2367        if expression.expressions:
2368            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2369        return ""
2370
2371    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2372        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2373        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2374        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2375        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2376        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2377        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2378        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2379
2380    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2382        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2383
2384    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2386        kind = expression.text("kind")
2387        if kind:
2388            kind = f"{kind}."
2389        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2390
2391    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2392        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2393
2394    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2395        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2396        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2397
2398        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2399        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2400
2401        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2402        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2403
2404    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2405        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2406        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2407
2408    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2409        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2410            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2411            order = expression.args.get("order")
2412
2413            if limit or order:
2414                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2415
2416                if limit:
2417                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2418                if order:
2419                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2420                return self.sql(select)
2421
2422        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2423        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2424
2425        while stack:
2426            node = stack.pop()
2427
2428            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2429                stack.append(node.expression)
2430                stack.append(
2431                    self.maybe_comment(
2432                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2433                        comments=node.comments,
2434                        separated=True,
2435                    )
2436                )
2437                stack.append(node.this)
2438            else:
2439                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2440
2441        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2442        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2443        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2444
2445    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2446        return self.set_operations(expression)
2447
2448    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2449        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2450        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2451        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2452        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2453
2454    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2455        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2456
2457        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2458        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2459
2460        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2461            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2462                alias.append("columns", offset)
2463
2464        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2465            columns = alias.columns
2466            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2467        else:
2468            alias = self.sql(alias)
2469
2470        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2471        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2472            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2473        else:
2474            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2475                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2476            elif offset:
2477                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2478            else:
2479                suffix = alias
2480
2481        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2482
2483    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2484        return ""
2485
2486    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2487        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2488        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2489
2490    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2491        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2492        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2493        order = expression.args.get("order")
2494        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2495        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2496        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2497        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2498
2499        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2500
2501        first = expression.args.get("first")
2502        if first is None:
2503            first = ""
2504        else:
2505            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2506
2507        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2508            return f"{this} {alias}"
2509
2510        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2511        return f"{this} ({args})"
2512
2513    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2514        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2515        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2516
2517    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2518        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2519        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2520        end = (
2521            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2522            or "CURRENT ROW"
2523        )
2524        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2525
2526    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2528        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2529        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2530
2531    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2533        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2534        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2535        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2536
2537    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2538        return apply_index_offset(
2539            expression.this,
2540            expression.expressions,
2541            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2542        )
2543
2544    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2545        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2546        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2547        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2548
2549    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2550        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2551
2552    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2554        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2555            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2556                this = self.wrap(this)
2557            return f"ANY{this}"
2558        return f"ANY {this}"
2559
2560    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2561        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2562
2563    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2565        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2566
2567        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2568            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2569            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2570
2571        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2572
2573        if default:
2574            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2575
2576        statements.append("END")
2577
2578        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2579            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2580
2581        return " ".join(statements)
2582
2583    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2585        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2586        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2587
2588    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2589        order = expression.args.get("order")
2590        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2591        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2592
2593    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2594        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2595        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2596        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2597
2598    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2599        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2600
2601        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2602            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2603        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2604            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2605        else:
2606            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2607
2608    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2609        args = expression.expressions
2610        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2611            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2612
2613        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2614            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2615
2616        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2617            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2618
2619        return args
2620
2621    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2622        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2623
2624        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2625        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2626            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2627
2628        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2629
2630    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2631        return self.func(
2632            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2633        )
2634
2635    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2636        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2637        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2638
2639    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2640        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2641        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2642        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2643        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2644        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2645        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2646        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2647        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2648
2649    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2650        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2651        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2652        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2653        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2654
2655    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2656        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2657
2658    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2659        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2660        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2661        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2662
2663    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2664        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2665
2666    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2667        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2668        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2669            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2670
2671        return path
2672
2673    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2674        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2675            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2676            if not callable(transform):
2677                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2678                return ""
2679
2680            return transform(self, expression)
2681
2682        if isinstance(expression, int):
2683            return str(expression)
2684
2685        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2686            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2687            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2688        else:
2689            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2690            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2691
2692        return escaped
2693
2694    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2695        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2696
2697    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2698        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2699        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2700
2701        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2702        if unique_keys is not None:
2703            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2704        else:
2705            unique_keys = ""
2706
2707        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2708        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2709        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2710        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2711
2712        return self.func(
2713            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2714            *expression.expressions,
2715            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2716        )
2717
2718    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2719        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2720
2721    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2722        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2723        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2724        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2725        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2726        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2727        return self.func(
2728            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2729        )
2730
2731    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2734        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2735        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2736        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2737        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2738        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2739        return self.func(
2740            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2741            this,
2742            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2743        )
2744
2745    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2746        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2747        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2748        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2749
2750        if nested_schema:
2751            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2752
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2755        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2756        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2757
2758    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2759        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2760
2761    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2763        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2764        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2765        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2766        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2767        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2768        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2769        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2770        return self.func(
2771            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2772        )
2773
2774    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2776        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2777        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2778        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2779        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2780        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2781
2782    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2784        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2785        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2786        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2787        with_ = (
2788            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2789            if expressions
2790            else ""
2791        )
2792        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2793
2794    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2795        query = expression.args.get("query")
2796        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2797        field = expression.args.get("field")
2798        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2799
2800        if query:
2801            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2802        elif unnest:
2803            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2804        elif field:
2805            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2806        else:
2807            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2808
2809        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2810
2811    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2812        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2813
2814    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2815        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2816        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2817            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2818        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2819
2820        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2821            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2822            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2823
2824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2825        if this:
2826            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2827            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2828
2829        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2830
2831    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2832        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2833
2834    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2836        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2837        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2838        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2839        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2840        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2841
2842    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2843        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2844
2845    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2846        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2847        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2848
2849    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2850        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2851        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2852        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2853        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2854
2855    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2856        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2857
2858    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2859        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2860        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2861        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2862
2863    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2864        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2865        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2866
2867        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2868            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2869        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2870            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2871
2872        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2873
2874    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2875        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2876
2877    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2879        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2880        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2881
2882    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2884        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2885        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2886
2887    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2889        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2890        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2891
2892    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2893        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2894
2895    def and_sql(
2896        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2897    ) -> str:
2898        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2899
2900    def or_sql(
2901        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2902    ) -> str:
2903        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2904
2905    def xor_sql(
2906        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2907    ) -> str:
2908        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2909
2910    def connector_sql(
2911        self,
2912        expression: exp.Connector,
2913        op: str,
2914        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2915    ) -> str:
2916        if stack is not None:
2917            if expression.expressions:
2918                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2919            else:
2920                stack.append(expression.right)
2921                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2922                    for comment in expression.comments:
2923                        if comment:
2924                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2925                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2926            return op
2927
2928        stack = [expression]
2929        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2930        ops = set()
2931
2932        while stack:
2933            node = stack.pop()
2934            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2935                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2936            else:
2937                sql = self.sql(node)
2938                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2939                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2940                else:
2941                    sqls.append(sql)
2942
2943        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2944        return sep.join(sqls)
2945
2946    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2947        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2948
2949    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2950        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2951
2952    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2953        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2954
2955    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2956        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2957
2958    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2959        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2960
2961    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2962        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2963
2964    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2965        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2966        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2967        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2968        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2969        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2970        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2971        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2972
2973    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2974        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2975        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2976
2977    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2978        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2979
2980    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2981        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2982            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2983        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2984
2985    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2986        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2987
2988    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2991        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2992        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2993        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2994        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2995
2996    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2998        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2999        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3000        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3001        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3002        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3003        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3004        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3005        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3006
3007    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3008        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3009        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3010        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3011        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3012
3013        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3014            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3015
3016        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3017
3018    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3019        return "BEGIN"
3020
3021    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3022        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3023        if chain is not None:
3024            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3025
3026        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3027
3028    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3029        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3030        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3031        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3032
3033    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3035
3036        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3037        if dtype:
3038            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3039            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3040            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3041            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3042            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3043
3044        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3045        if default:
3046            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3047
3048        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3049        if comment:
3050            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3051
3052        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3053        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3054
3055        if not drop and not allow_null:
3056            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3057
3058        if allow_null is not None:
3059            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3060            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3061
3062        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3063
3064    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3066        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3067            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3068        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3069
3070    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3071        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3073        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3074        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3075        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3076
3077    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3078        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3079            # Remove db from tables
3080            expression = expression.transform(
3081                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3082            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3084        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3085
3086    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3087        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3088        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3089        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3090        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3091
3092    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3093        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3094        return f"SET {exprs}"
3095
3096    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3097        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3098
3099        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3100            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3101        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3102            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3103        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3104            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3105        else:
3106            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3107
3108        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3109        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3110        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3111        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3112        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3113        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3114        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3115
3116    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3117        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3118            return self.expressions(
3119                expression,
3120                key="actions",
3121                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3122            )
3123        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3124
3125    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3126        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3127        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3128        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3129
3130    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3131        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3132
3133    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3134        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3135
3136        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3137            case = exp.case()
3138            for arg in expression.expressions:
3139                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3140            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3141
3142        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3143
3144        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3145        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3146        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3147
3148    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3149        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3150
3151    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3152        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3153
3154    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3155        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3156        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3157        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3158        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3159
3160    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3161        return self.sql(
3162            exp.Cast(
3163                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3164                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3165            )
3166        )
3167
3168    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3169        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3170            return self.func(
3171                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3172            )
3173        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3174
3175    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3176        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3177
3178        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3179            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3180
3181        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3182            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3183                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3184
3185        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3186            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3187                return self.sql(
3188                    exp.cast(
3189                        l / r,
3190                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3191                    )
3192                )
3193
3194        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3195
3196    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3197        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3198
3199    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3200        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3201
3202    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3203        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3204
3205    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3206        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3207
3208    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3209        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3210
3211    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3212        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3213
3214    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3215        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3216
3217    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3218        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3219
3220    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3221        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3222
3223    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3224        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3225
3226    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3227        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3228
3229    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3230        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3231            return self.sql(
3232                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3233            )
3234        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3235
3236    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3238
3239    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3241
3242    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3244
3245    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3247
3248    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3250
3251    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3253
3254    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3256
3257    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3259
3260    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3262
3263    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3265
3266    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3268
3269    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3271
3272    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3273        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3274
3275    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3276        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3277            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3278            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3279
3280        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3281
3282    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3283        this = expression.this
3284        expr = expression.expression
3285
3286        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3287            this, expr = expr, this
3288        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3289            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3290                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3291
3292            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3293
3294        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3295
3296    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3297        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3298        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3299        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3300        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3301        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3302
3303    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3304        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3305        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3306
3307    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3308        args = []
3309
3310        for key in expression.arg_types:
3311            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3312
3313            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3314                for value in arg_value:
3315                    args.append(value)
3316            elif arg_value is not None:
3317                args.append(arg_value)
3318
3319        if self.normalize_functions:
3320            name = expression.sql_name()
3321        else:
3322            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3323
3324        return self.func(name, *args)
3325
3326    def func(
3327        self,
3328        name: str,
3329        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3330        prefix: str = "(",
3331        suffix: str = ")",
3332    ) -> str:
3333        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3334
3335    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3336        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3337        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3338            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3339        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3340
3341    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3342        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3343
3344    def format_time(
3345        self,
3346        expression: exp.Expression,
3347        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3348        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3349    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3350        return format_time(
3351            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3352            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3353            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3354        )
3355
3356    def expressions(
3357        self,
3358        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3359        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3360        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3361        flat: bool = False,
3362        indent: bool = True,
3363        skip_first: bool = False,
3364        skip_last: bool = False,
3365        sep: str = ", ",
3366        prefix: str = "",
3367        dynamic: bool = False,
3368        new_line: bool = False,
3369    ) -> str:
3370        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3371
3372        if not expressions:
3373            return ""
3374
3375        if flat:
3376            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3377
3378        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3379
3380        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3381        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3382            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3383
3384        result_sqls = []
3385        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3386            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3387            if not sql:
3388                continue
3389
3390            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3391
3392            if self.pretty:
3393                if self.leading_comma:
3394                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3395                else:
3396                    result_sqls.append(
3397                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3398                    )
3399            else:
3400                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3401
3402        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3403            if new_line:
3404                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3405                result_sqls.append("")
3406            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3407        else:
3408            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3409        return (
3410            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3411            if indent
3412            else result_sql
3413        )
3414
3415    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3416        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3417        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3418        if flat:
3419            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3420        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3421
3422    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3423        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3424        if not property_name:
3425            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3426        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3427
3428    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3429        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3430
3431    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3432        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3433
3434    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3436        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3437        expressions = (
3438            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3439        )
3440        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3441
3442    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3445        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3446
3447    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3448        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3449
3450    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3451        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3452        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3453        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3454        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3455
3456        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3457        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3458            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3459            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3460            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3461            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3462        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3463            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3464                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3465            else:
3466                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3467        else:
3468            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3469        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3470
3471    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3472        table = expression.this
3473        table_alias = ""
3474
3475        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3476        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3477            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3478            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3479
3480        this = self.sql(table)
3481        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3482        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3483        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3484        sep = self.sep()
3485
3486        return self.prepend_ctes(
3487            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3488        )
3489
3490    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3491        if expression.args.get("format"):
3492            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3493
3494        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3495
3496    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3497        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3498            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3499            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3500
3501        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3502        if not fmt:
3503            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3504            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3505
3506        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3507
3508    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3509        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3510        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3511        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3512        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3513        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3514
3515    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3517        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3518        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3519        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3520
3521    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3522        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3523
3524    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3525        return ""
3526
3527    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3528        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3529        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3530        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3531        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3532        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3533
3534    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3536        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3537
3538        if having:
3539            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3540
3541        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3542
3543    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3544        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3545        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3546        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3547        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3548        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3549        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3550        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3551        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3552        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3553        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3554        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3555        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3556        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3557
3558    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3559        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3560        if key_block_size:
3561            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3562
3563        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3564        if using:
3565            return f"USING {using}"
3566
3567        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3568        if parser:
3569            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3570
3571        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3572        if comment:
3573            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3574
3575        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3576        if visible is not None:
3577            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3578
3579        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3580        if engine_attr:
3581            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3582
3583        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3584        if secondary_engine_attr:
3585            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3586
3587        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3588        return ""
3589
3590    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3591        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3592        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3593
3594    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3595        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3596        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3598        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3599        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3600        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3601        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3602        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3603        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3604        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3605        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3606
3607    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3608        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3609            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3610
3611        case = exp.Case().when(
3612            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3613            expression.args["true"],
3614            copy=False,
3615        )
3616        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3617        if else_cond:
3618            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3619
3620        return self.sql(case)
3621
3622    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3624        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3625        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3626        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3627        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3628        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3629
3630    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3631        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3632
3633    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3634        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3635
3636    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3637        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3638        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3639        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3640        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3641        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3642        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3643
3644    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3646        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3647        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3648
3649    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3651        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3652        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3653
3654    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3655        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3656
3657    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3658        arg = expression.this
3659        if not arg.type:
3660            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3661
3662            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3663
3664        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3665            return self.sql(arg)
3666
3667        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3668        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3669
3670    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3671        this = expression.this
3672        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3673            return self.sql(this)
3674
3675        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3676
3677    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3678        this = expression.this
3679        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3680            return self.sql(this)
3681
3682        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3683
3684    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3685        this = expression.this
3686        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3687
3688        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3689            return self.sql(
3690                exp.cast(
3691                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3692                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3693                )
3694            )
3695
3696        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3697            return self.sql(this)
3698
3699        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3700
3701    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3702        return self.sql(
3703            exp.func(
3704                "DATEDIFF",
3705                expression.this,
3706                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3707                "day",
3708            )
3709        )
3710
3711    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3712        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3713            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3714
3715        unit = expression.text("unit")
3716        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3717            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3718
3719        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3720
3721    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3722        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3723
3724        return self.func(
3725            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3726        )
3727
3728    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3729        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3730            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3731            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3732            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3733            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3734
3735        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3736
3737        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3738        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3739            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3740
3741        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3742
3743    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3744        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3745        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3746
3747    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3748        expression.set(
3749            "expressions",
3750            [
3751                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3752                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3753                else e
3754                for e in expression.expressions
3755            ],
3756        )
3757
3758        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3759
3760    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3761        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3762        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3763
3764        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3765
3766    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3767        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3768        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3769
3770        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3771
3772        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3773        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3774
3775        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3776        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3777
3778        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3779        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3780
3781        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3782        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3783
3784        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3785
3786    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3787    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3788    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3789        to = expression.this
3790        value = expression.expression
3791        style = expression.args.get("style")
3792        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3793        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3794
3795        if not to or not value:
3796            return ""
3797
3798        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3799        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3800            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3801
3802        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3803        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3804
3805        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3806        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3807            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3808
3809            style_value = style.name
3810            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3811            if not converted_style:
3812                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3813
3814            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3815
3816            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3817                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3818            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3819                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3820            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3821                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3822            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3823                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3824
3825        if not transformed:
3826            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3827
3828        return self.sql(transformed)
3829
3830    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3831        this = expression.this
3832        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3833            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3834            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3835
3836        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3837            return f".{this}"
3838
3839        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3840        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3841
3842    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3843        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3844        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3845
3846    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3847        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3848            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3849
3850            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3851
3852        return expression
3853
3854    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3855        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3856            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3857            mods = sorted(
3858                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3859                key=lambda x: 0
3860                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3861                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3862            )
3863
3864            if mods:
3865                mod = mods[0]
3866                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3867                this.meta["inline"] = True
3868                mod.this.replace(this)
3869                return self.sql(expression.this)
3870
3871            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3872
3873            if agg_func:
3874                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3875
3876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3877
3878    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3879        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3880        if self.pretty:
3881            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3882        return string
3883
3884    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3885        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3886
3887        if expression.expressions:
3888            upper = option.upper()
3889
3890            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3891            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3892
3893            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3894            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3895            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3896            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3897
3898        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3899
3900        if not value:
3901            return option
3902
3903        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3904
3905        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3906
3907    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3908        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3909        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3910            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3911            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3912            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3913        else:
3914            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3915            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3916            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3917
3918        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3919        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3920
3921        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3922        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3923
3924        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3925        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3926
3927        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3928        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3929
3930        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3931
3932    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3934        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3935
3936        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3937        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3938        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3939        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3940
3941        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3942        params = self.expressions(
3943            expression,
3944            key="params",
3945            sep=sep,
3946            new_line=True,
3947            skip_last=True,
3948            skip_first=True,
3949            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3950        )
3951
3952        if params:
3953            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3954                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3955            elif not self.pretty:
3956                params = f" {params}"
3957
3958        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3959
3960    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3961        return ""
3962
3963    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3964        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3965        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3966        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3967        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3968        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3969
3970        if filter_col or retention_period:
3971            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3972
3973        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3974
3975    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3976        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3977    ) -> str:
3978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3979        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3980        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3981        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3982
3983    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3985        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3986        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
3987
3988    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3989        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
3990
3991    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3993        expr = expression.expression
3994
3995        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
3996            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
3997            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
3998        else:
3999            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4000
4001        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4002
4003    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4004        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4005            return self.sql(expression.this)
4006
4007        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  97        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  98        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  99        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 100        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 101        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 102        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 103        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 104        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 108        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 112            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 113        ),
 114        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 116        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 117        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 118        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 119        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 120        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 121        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 122        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 123        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 124        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 129        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 131        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 133            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 134        ),
 135        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 137        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 138        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 139        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 140        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 143        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 144        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 145        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 146        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 147        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 150        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 152        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 153        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 154        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 155        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 156        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 157        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 159        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 161    }
 162
 163    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 164    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 165    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 166
 167    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 168    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 169    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 170
 171    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 172    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 173
 174    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 175    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 176
 177    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 178    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 179
 180    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 181    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 182
 183    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 184    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 185
 186    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 187    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 188
 189    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 190    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 191
 192    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 193    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 194
 195    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 196    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 197
 198    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 199    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 200
 201    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 202    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 203
 204    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 205    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 206
 207    # Whether join hints should be generated
 208    JOIN_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # Whether table hints should be generated
 211    TABLE_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # Whether query hints should be generated
 214    QUERY_HINTS = True
 215
 216    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 217    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 218
 219    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 220    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 221
 222    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 223    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 224
 225    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 226    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 227
 228    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 229    RETURNING_END = True
 230
 231    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 232    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 233
 234    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 235    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 236
 237    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 238    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 239
 240    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 241    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 242
 243    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 244    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 245    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 246    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 247
 248    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 249    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 250
 251    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 252    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 253
 254    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 255    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 256
 257    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 258    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 259
 260    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 261    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 262
 263    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 264    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 265
 266    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 267    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 268
 269    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 270    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 271
 272    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 273    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 274
 275    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 276    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 277
 278    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 279    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 280
 281    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 282    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 283
 284    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 285    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 286
 287    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 288    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 289
 290    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 291    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 292
 293    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 294    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 295
 296    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 297    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 298
 299    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 300    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 301
 302    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 303    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 304
 305    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 306    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 307
 308    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 309    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 310
 311    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 312    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 313
 314    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 315    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 316
 317    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 318    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 319
 320    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 321    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 322
 323    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 324    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 325    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 326
 327    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 328    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 329
 330    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 331    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 332
 333    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 334    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 335
 336    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 337    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 338
 339    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 340    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 341
 342    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 343    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 344
 345    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 346    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 347    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 348    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 349
 350    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 351    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 352
 353    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 354    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 355
 356    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 357    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 358
 359    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 360    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 361
 362    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 363    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 364
 365    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 366    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 367
 368    # The HEX function name
 369    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 370
 371    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 372    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 373
 374    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 375    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 376
 377    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 378    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 379
 380    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 381        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 388        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 389        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 390        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 391    }
 392
 393    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 394        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 395        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 396        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 397        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 398        "DAYS": "DAY",
 399        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 400        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 401        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 402        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 403    }
 404
 405    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 406        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 407        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 408        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 409        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 410        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 411            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 412            if e.args.get("windows")
 413            else ""
 414        ),
 415    }
 416
 417    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 418
 419    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 420
 421    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 422    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 423
 424    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 425        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 427        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 431        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 433        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 438        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 440        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 443        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 448        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 449        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 450        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 451        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 453        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 457        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 463        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 464        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 465        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 466        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 467        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 469        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 472        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 475        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 483        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 487        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 489        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 490        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 493        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 496        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 504        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 505        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506    }
 507
 508    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 509    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 510
 511    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 512    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 513        exp.Create,
 514        exp.Delete,
 515        exp.Drop,
 516        exp.From,
 517        exp.Insert,
 518        exp.Join,
 519        exp.Select,
 520        exp.SetOperation,
 521        exp.Update,
 522        exp.Where,
 523        exp.With,
 524    )
 525
 526    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 527    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 528        exp.Binary,
 529        exp.SetOperation,
 530    )
 531
 532    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 533    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 534        exp.Column,
 535        exp.Literal,
 536        exp.Neg,
 537        exp.Paren,
 538    )
 539
 540    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 541        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 542        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 543        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 544        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 545    }
 546
 547    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 548    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 549
 550    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 551
 552    __slots__ = (
 553        "pretty",
 554        "identify",
 555        "normalize",
 556        "pad",
 557        "_indent",
 558        "normalize_functions",
 559        "unsupported_level",
 560        "max_unsupported",
 561        "leading_comma",
 562        "max_text_width",
 563        "comments",
 564        "dialect",
 565        "unsupported_messages",
 566        "_escaped_quote_end",
 567        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 568        "_next_name",
 569    )
 570
 571    def __init__(
 572        self,
 573        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 574        identify: str | bool = False,
 575        normalize: bool = False,
 576        pad: int = 2,
 577        indent: int = 2,
 578        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 579        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 580        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 581        leading_comma: bool = False,
 582        max_text_width: int = 80,
 583        comments: bool = True,
 584        dialect: DialectType = None,
 585    ):
 586        import sqlglot
 587        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 588
 589        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 590        self.identify = identify
 591        self.normalize = normalize
 592        self.pad = pad
 593        self._indent = indent
 594        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 595        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 596        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 597        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 598        self.comments = comments
 599        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 600
 601        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 602        self.normalize_functions = (
 603            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 604        )
 605
 606        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 607        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 608            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 609        )
 610        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 611            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 612        )
 613
 614        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 615
 616    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 617        """
 618        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 619
 620        Args:
 621            expression: The syntax tree.
 622            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 623                it is safer to copy.
 624
 625        Returns:
 626            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 627        """
 628        if copy:
 629            expression = expression.copy()
 630
 631        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 632
 633        self.unsupported_messages = []
 634        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 635
 636        if self.pretty:
 637            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 638
 639        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 640            return sql
 641
 642        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 643            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 644                logger.warning(msg)
 645        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 646            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 647
 648        return sql
 649
 650    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 651        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 652        if (
 653            not expression.parent
 654            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 655            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 656        ):
 657            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 658
 659            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 660
 661        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 662            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 663
 664            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 665
 666        return expression
 667
 668    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 669        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 670            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 671        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 672
 673    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 674        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 675
 676    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 677        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 678
 679    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 680        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 681        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 682        return comment
 683
 684    def maybe_comment(
 685        self,
 686        sql: str,
 687        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 688        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 689        separated: bool = False,
 690    ) -> str:
 691        comments = (
 692            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 693            if self.comments
 694            else None
 695        )
 696
 697        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 698            return sql
 699
 700        comments_sql = " ".join(
 701            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 702        )
 703
 704        if not comments_sql:
 705            return sql
 706
 707        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 708
 709        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 710            return (
 711                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 712                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 713                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 714            )
 715
 716        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 717
 718    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 719        this_sql = (
 720            self.sql(expression)
 721            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 722            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 723        )
 724        if not this_sql:
 725            return "()"
 726
 727        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 728        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 729
 730    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 731        original = self.identify
 732        self.identify = False
 733        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 734        self.identify = original
 735        return result
 736
 737    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 738        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 739            return name.upper()
 740        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 741            return name.lower()
 742        return name
 743
 744    def indent(
 745        self,
 746        sql: str,
 747        level: int = 0,
 748        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 749        skip_first: bool = False,
 750        skip_last: bool = False,
 751    ) -> str:
 752        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 753            return sql
 754
 755        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 756        lines = sql.split("\n")
 757
 758        return "\n".join(
 759            (
 760                line
 761                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 762                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 763            )
 764            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 765        )
 766
 767    def sql(
 768        self,
 769        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 770        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 771        comment: bool = True,
 772    ) -> str:
 773        if not expression:
 774            return ""
 775
 776        if isinstance(expression, str):
 777            return expression
 778
 779        if key:
 780            value = expression.args.get(key)
 781            if value:
 782                return self.sql(value)
 783            return ""
 784
 785        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 786
 787        if callable(transform):
 788            sql = transform(self, expression)
 789        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 790            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 791
 792            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 793                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 794            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 795                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 796            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 797                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 798            else:
 799                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 800        else:
 801            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 802
 803        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 804
 805    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 806        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 807        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 808        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 809
 810    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 811        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 812        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 813        options = expression.args.get("options")
 814        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 815        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 816        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 817        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 818        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 819
 820    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 821        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 822            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 823        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 824        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 825
 826    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 827        return ".".join(
 828            self.sql(part)
 829            for part in (
 830                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 831                expression.args.get("db"),
 832                expression.args.get("table"),
 833                expression.args.get("this"),
 834            )
 835            if part
 836        )
 837
 838    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 839        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 840
 841        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 842            join_mark = ""
 843            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 844
 845        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 846
 847    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 849        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 850        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 851        return f"{position}{this}"
 852
 853    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 854        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 855        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 856        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 857        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 858        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 859        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 860        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 861        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 862
 863        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 864            kind = ""
 865
 866        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 867
 868    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 870        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 871        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 872
 873    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 875        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 876            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 877        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 878            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 879        else:
 880            persisted = ""
 881        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 882
 883    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 884        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 885
 886    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 887        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 888            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 889        else:
 890            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 891
 892        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 893
 894    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 895        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 896    ) -> str:
 897        this = ""
 898        if expression.this is not None:
 899            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 900            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 901
 902        start = expression.args.get("start")
 903        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 904        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 905        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 906        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 907        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 908        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 909        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 910        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 911        cycle_sql = ""
 912
 913        if cycle is not None:
 914            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 915            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 916
 917        sequence_opts = ""
 918        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 919            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 920            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 921
 922        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 923        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 924
 925        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 926
 927    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 928        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 929    ) -> str:
 930        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 931        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 932        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 933
 934    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 935        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 936    ) -> str:
 937        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 938
 939    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 940        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 941
 942    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 943        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 944
 945    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 946        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 947        if desc is not None:
 948            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 949        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 950
 951    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 953        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 954        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 955        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 956        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 957        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 958        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 959
 960    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 961        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 962
 963    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 964        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 965        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 966        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 967
 968        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 969
 970        properties_sql = ""
 971        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 972            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 973        ):
 974            properties_sql = self.sql(
 975                exp.Properties(
 976                    expressions=[
 977                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 978                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 979                    ]
 980                )
 981            )
 982
 983            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 984                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 985            elif not self.pretty:
 986                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 987                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 988
 989        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 990        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 991
 992        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 993        if expression_sql:
 994            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 995
 996            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 997                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 998                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 999                        exp.Properties(
1000                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1001                        ),
1002                        wrapped=False,
1003                    )
1004                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1005                else:
1006                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1007
1008        postindex_props_sql = ""
1009        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1010            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1011                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1012                wrapped=False,
1013                prefix=" ",
1014            )
1015
1016        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1017        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1018        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1019
1020        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1021        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1022
1023        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1024        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1025            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1026                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1027                sep=" ",
1028                prefix=" ",
1029                wrapped=False,
1030            )
1031
1032        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1033
1034        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1035        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1036            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1037                exp.Properties(
1038                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1039                ),
1040                sep=" ",
1041                prefix=" ",
1042                wrapped=False,
1043            )
1044
1045        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1046        no_schema_binding = (
1047            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1048        )
1049
1050        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1051        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1052
1053        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1054        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1055
1056    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1057        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1058        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1059        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1060        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1061        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1062        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1063        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1064        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1065        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1066        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1067
1068        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1069        if cache is None:
1070            cache_str = ""
1071        elif cache is True:
1072            cache_str = " CACHE"
1073        else:
1074            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1075
1076        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1077        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1078
1079        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1080
1081    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1084        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1085        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1086
1087    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1088        style = expression.args.get("style")
1089        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1090        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1091
1092    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1093        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1094        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1095
1096    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1097        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1098        if with_:
1099            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1100        return sql
1101
1102    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1103        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1104        recursive = (
1105            "RECURSIVE "
1106            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1107            else ""
1108        )
1109
1110        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1111
1112    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1113        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1114
1115        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1116        if materialized is False:
1117            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1118        elif materialized:
1119            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1120
1121        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1122
1123    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1124        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1125        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1126        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1127
1128        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1129            columns = ""
1130            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1131
1132        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1133            alias = self._next_name()
1134
1135        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1136
1137    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1138        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1139        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1140            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1141        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1142
1143    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1146            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1147        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1148
1149    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1151        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1152            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1153        return this
1154
1155    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1156        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1157        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1158
1159        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1160            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1161            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1162        else:
1163            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1164            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1165
1166        if escape:
1167            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1168            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1169        else:
1170            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1171            escape_sql = ""
1172
1173        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1174            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1175
1176        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1177
1178    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1179        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1180        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1181
1182    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1185        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1186        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1187
1188    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1189        type_value = expression.this
1190
1191        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1192            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1193        else:
1194            type_sql = (
1195                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1196                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1197                else type_value
1198            )
1199
1200        nested = ""
1201        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1202        values = ""
1203
1204        if interior:
1205            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1206                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1207                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1208                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1209                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1210                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1211            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1212                nested = f" {interior}"
1213            else:
1214                nested = f"({interior})"
1215
1216        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1217        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1218            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1219            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1220        ):
1221            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1222
1223        return type_sql
1224
1225    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1226        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1227        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1228        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1229        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1230
1231    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1234        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1235        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1236        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1237        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1238        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1239        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1240        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1241        if self.RETURNING_END:
1242            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1243        else:
1244            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1245        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1246
1247    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1249        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1250        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1251        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1252        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1253        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1254        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1255        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1256        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1257        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1258        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1259        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1260        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1261
1262    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1263        return self.set_operations(expression)
1264
1265    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1266        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1267
1268    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1269        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1270        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1271        count = expression.args.get("count")
1272        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1273        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1274            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1275        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1276        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1277
1278    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1279        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1280            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1281            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1282            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1283
1284        agg = expression.this
1285        agg_arg = agg.this
1286        cond = expression.expression.this
1287        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1288        return self.sql(agg)
1289
1290    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1291        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1292            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1293            return ""
1294
1295        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1296
1297    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1298        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1299        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1300        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1301        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1302        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1303        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1304        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1305        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1306        if include:
1307            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1308        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1309        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1310        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1311        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1312        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1313        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1314
1315        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1316
1317    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1318        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1319        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1320        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1321        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1323        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1324        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1325
1326        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1327
1328        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1329        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1330
1331    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1332        text = expression.name
1333        lower = text.lower()
1334        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1335        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1336        if (
1337            expression.quoted
1338            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1339            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1340            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1341        ):
1342            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1343        return text
1344
1345    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1346        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1347        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1348            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1349
1350        return text
1351
1352    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1353        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1354        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1355            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1356        return text
1357
1358    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1359        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1360        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1361        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1362        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1363        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1364
1365    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1366        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1367        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1368
1369    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1370        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1371
1372    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1373        root_properties = []
1374        with_properties = []
1375
1376        for p in expression.expressions:
1377            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1378            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1379                with_properties.append(p)
1380            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1381                root_properties.append(p)
1382
1383        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1384        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1385
1386        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1387            with_props = " " + with_props
1388
1389        return root_props + with_props
1390
1391    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1392        if properties.expressions:
1393            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1394        return ""
1395
1396    def properties(
1397        self,
1398        properties: exp.Properties,
1399        prefix: str = "",
1400        sep: str = ", ",
1401        suffix: str = "",
1402        wrapped: bool = True,
1403    ) -> str:
1404        if properties.expressions:
1405            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1406            if expressions:
1407                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1408                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1409        return ""
1410
1411    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1412        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1413
1414    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1415        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1416        for p in properties.expressions:
1417            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1418            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1419                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1420            else:
1421                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1422
1423        return properties_locs
1424
1425    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1426        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1427            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1428        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1429
1430    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1431        property_cls = expression.__class__
1432        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1433            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1434
1435        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1436        if not property_name:
1437            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1438
1439        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1440
1441    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1442        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1443            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1444            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1445
1446            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1447            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1448                like = f"({like})"
1449
1450            return like
1451
1452        if expression.expressions:
1453            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1454
1455        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1456        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1457
1458    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1459        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1460        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1461        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1462
1463    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1464        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1465        local = expression.args.get("local")
1466        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1467        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1468        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1469        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1470        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1471
1472    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1473        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1474        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1475        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1476
1477    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1478        if expression.args.get("default"):
1479            property = "DEFAULT"
1480        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1481            property = "ON"
1482        else:
1483            property = "OFF"
1484        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1485
1486    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1487        if expression.args.get("no"):
1488            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1489        if expression.args.get("default"):
1490            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1491
1492        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1493        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1494
1495    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1496        default = expression.args.get("default")
1497        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1498        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1499        if default or minimum or maximum:
1500            if default:
1501                prop = "DEFAULT"
1502            elif minimum:
1503                prop = "MINIMUM"
1504            else:
1505                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1506            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1507        units = expression.args.get("units")
1508        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1509        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1510
1511    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1512        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1513        always = expression.args.get("always")
1514        default = expression.args.get("default")
1515        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1516        never = expression.args.get("never")
1517
1518        if autotemp is not None:
1519            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1520        elif always:
1521            prop = "ALWAYS"
1522        elif default:
1523            prop = "DEFAULT"
1524        elif manual:
1525            prop = "MANUAL"
1526        elif never:
1527            prop = "NEVER"
1528        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1529
1530    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1531        no = expression.args.get("no")
1532        no = " NO" if no else ""
1533        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1534        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1535        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1536        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1537        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1538
1539    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1540        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1541            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1542        if expression.this:
1543            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1544            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1545            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1546
1547        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1548        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1549        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1550
1551    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1553
1554        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1555        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1556            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1557        else:
1558            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1559
1560        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1561
1562    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1563        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1564        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1565        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1566        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1567        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1568        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1569        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1570
1571    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1572        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1573        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1574        statistics_sql = ""
1575        if statistics is not None:
1576            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1577        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1578
1579    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1581        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1582        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1583        data_consistency = (
1584            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1585        )
1586        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1587        retention_period = (
1588            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1589        )
1590
1591        if this:
1592            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1593        else:
1594            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1595
1596        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1597
1598        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1599
1600    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1601        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1602        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1603
1604        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1605            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1606        else:
1607            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1608
1609        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1610        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1611        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1612        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1613        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1614        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1615        if is_function:
1616            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1617        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1618
1619        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1620        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1621        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1622        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1623        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1624        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1625        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1626        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1627
1628        if self.RETURNING_END:
1629            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1630        else:
1631            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1632
1633        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1634        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1635
1636    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1637        return self.set_operations(expression)
1638
1639    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1640        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1641
1642    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1643        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1644
1645    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1646        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1647        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1649        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1650        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1651
1652    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1653        return expression.name
1654
1655    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1656        return expression.name
1657
1658    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1659        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1660
1661        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1662        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1663
1664        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1665        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1666        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1667
1668        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1669        if expressions:
1670            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1671            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1672
1673        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1674
1675    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1676        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1677
1678    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1679        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1680        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1681        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1682        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1683        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1684        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1685        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1686        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1687        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1688        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1689        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1690        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1691        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1692
1693    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1694        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1695
1696    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1697        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1698        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1699        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1700        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1701
1702    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1705        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1706        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1707
1708    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1709        return ".".join(
1710            self.sql(part)
1711            for part in (
1712                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1713                expression.args.get("db"),
1714                expression.args.get("this"),
1715            )
1716            if part is not None
1717        )
1718
1719    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1720        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1721        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1722        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1723        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1724        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1725        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1726        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1727        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1728        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1729        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1730        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1731        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1732        joins = self.indent(
1733            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1734        )
1735        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1736
1737        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1738        if file_format:
1739            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1740            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1741            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1742
1743        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1744        if ordinality:
1745            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1746            alias = ""
1747
1748        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1749        if when:
1750            table = f"{table} {when}"
1751
1752        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1753
1754    def tablesample_sql(
1755        self,
1756        expression: exp.TableSample,
1757        sep: str = " AS ",
1758        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1759    ) -> str:
1760        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1761            table = expression.this.copy()
1762            table.set("alias", None)
1763            this = self.sql(table)
1764            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1765        else:
1766            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1767            alias = ""
1768
1769        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1770        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1771        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1772        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1773        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1774        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1775        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1776        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1777        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1778
1779        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1780        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1781            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1782
1783        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1784        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1785            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1786
1787        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1788        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1789            expr = f"({expr})"
1790
1791        return (
1792            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1793        )
1794
1795    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1796        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1797
1798        if expression.this:
1799            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1800            if not expressions:
1801                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1802
1803            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1804            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1805            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1806            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1807            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1808
1809        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1810        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1811        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1812        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1813        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1814        if include_nulls is not None:
1815            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1816        else:
1817            nulls = ""
1818        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1819
1820    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1821        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1822        kind = expression.text("kind")
1823        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1824        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1825
1826    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1827        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1828
1829    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1831        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1832        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1833        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1834        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1835        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1836        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1837        if self.RETURNING_END:
1838            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1839        else:
1840            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1841        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1842        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1843
1844    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1845        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1846
1847        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1848        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1849            args = self.expressions(expression)
1850            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1851            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1852            values = (
1853                f"({values})"
1854                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1855                else values
1856            )
1857            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1858
1859        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1860        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1861        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1862
1863        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1864
1865        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1866            row = tup.expressions
1867
1868            if i == 0 and column_names:
1869                row = [
1870                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1871                ]
1872
1873            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1874
1875        if self.pretty:
1876            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1877            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1878            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1879            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1880            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1881
1882        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1883        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1884        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1885
1886    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1887        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1888
1889    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1890        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1891        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1892        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1893
1894    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1895        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1896
1897    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1898        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1899        if group_by_all is True:
1900            modifier = " ALL"
1901        elif group_by_all is False:
1902            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1903        else:
1904            modifier = ""
1905
1906        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1907
1908        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1909        grouping_sets = (
1910            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1911        )
1912
1913        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1914        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1915            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1916        else:
1917            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1918            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1919
1920        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1921        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1922            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1923        else:
1924            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1925            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1926
1927        groupings = csv(
1928            grouping_sets,
1929            cube_sql,
1930            rollup_sql,
1931            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1932            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1933        )
1934
1935        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1936            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1937
1938        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1939
1940    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1941        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1942        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1943
1944    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1945        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1946        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1947        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1948        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1949        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1950        return start + connect
1951
1952    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1953        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1954
1955    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1956        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1957            side = None
1958        else:
1959            side = expression.side
1960
1961        op_sql = " ".join(
1962            op
1963            for op in (
1964                expression.method,
1965                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1966                side,
1967                expression.kind,
1968                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1969            )
1970            if op
1971        )
1972        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1973        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1974        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1975        using = expression.args.get("using")
1976
1977        if not on_sql and using:
1978            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1979
1980        this = expression.this
1981        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1982
1983        if on_sql:
1984            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1985            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1986            if using:
1987                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1988            else:
1989                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1990        elif not op_sql:
1991            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1992                return f" {this_sql}"
1993
1994            return f", {this_sql}"
1995
1996        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1997            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1998
1999        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2000
2001    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2002        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2003        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2004        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2005
2006    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2007        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2008
2009        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2010        if cross_apply is True:
2011            op = "INNER JOIN "
2012        elif cross_apply is False:
2013            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2014        else:
2015            op = ""
2016
2017        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2018
2019    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2021
2022        if expression.args.get("view"):
2023            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2024            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2025            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2026            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2027            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2028            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2029
2030        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2031        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2032        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2033
2034    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2036
2037        args = [
2038            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2039            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2040            if e
2041        ]
2042
2043        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2044        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2045        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2046        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2047
2048        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2049
2050    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        value = expression.expression
2053        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2055        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2056        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2057
2058    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2059        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2060        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2063        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2064        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2065        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2066        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2067
2068    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2069        expressions = (
2070            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2071        )
2072        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2073        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2074
2075    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2076        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2077
2078    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2079        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2080            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2081            return ""
2082
2083        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2084        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2085        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2086        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2087
2088        if wait is not None:
2089            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2090                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2091            else:
2092                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2093
2094        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2095
2096    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2097        text = expression.this or ""
2098        if expression.is_string:
2099            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2100        return text
2101
2102    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2103        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2104            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2105            text = "".join(
2106                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2107            )
2108
2109        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2110            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2111        )
2112
2113    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2114        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2115        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2116        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2117        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2118        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2119        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2120        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2121        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2122        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2123        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2124        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2125
2126    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2127        return "NULL"
2128
2129    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2130        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2131
2132    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2135        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2136        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2137        interpolated_values = [
2138            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2139            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2140        ]
2141        interpolate = (
2142            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2143        )
2144        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2145
2146    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2147        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2148        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2149        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2150        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2151        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2152        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2153        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2154
2155    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2156        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2157
2158    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2159        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2160
2161    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2162        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2163
2164    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2165        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2166        asc = not desc
2167
2168        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2169        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2170        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2171        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2172        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2173
2174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2175
2176        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2177        nulls_sort_change = ""
2178        if nulls_first and (
2179            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2180        ):
2181            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2182        elif (
2183            nulls_last
2184            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2185            and not nulls_are_last
2186        ):
2187            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2188
2189        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2190        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2191            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2192            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2193                self.unsupported(
2194                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2195                )
2196                nulls_sort_change = ""
2197            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2198                if expression.this.is_int:
2199                    self.unsupported(
2200                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2201                    )
2202                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2203                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2204                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2205                nulls_sort_change = ""
2206
2207        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2208        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2209
2210        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2211
2212    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2213        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2214        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2215
2216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2217
2218        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2219
2220    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2221        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2222        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2223        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2224        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2225        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2226        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2227        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2228        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2229        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2230        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2231        definition_sqls = [
2232            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2233            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2234        ]
2235        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2236        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2237        body = "".join(
2238            (
2239                partition,
2240                order,
2241                measures,
2242                rows,
2243                after,
2244                pattern,
2245                define,
2246            )
2247        )
2248        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2249        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2250        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2251
2252    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2253        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2254
2255        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2256            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2257        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2258            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2259
2260        return csv(
2261            *sqls,
2262            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2263            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2264            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2265            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2266            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2267            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2268            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2269            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2270            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2271            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2272            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2273            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2274            self.options_modifier(expression),
2275            sep="",
2276        )
2277
2278    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2279        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2280        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2281
2282    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2283        return ""
2284
2285    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2286        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2287    ) -> t.List[str]:
2288        return [
2289            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2290            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2291        ]
2292
2293    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2294        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2295        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2296        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2297
2298    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2299        into = expression.args.get("into")
2300        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2301            into.pop()
2302
2303        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2304        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2305        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2306        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2307
2308        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2309        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2310            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2311            limit.pop()
2312        else:
2313            top = ""
2314
2315        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2316
2317        if kind:
2318            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2319                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2320            else:
2321                if kind == "STRUCT":
2322                    expressions = self.expressions(
2323                        sqls=[
2324                            self.sql(
2325                                exp.Struct(
2326                                    expressions=[
2327                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2328                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2329                                        else e
2330                                        for e in expression.expressions
2331                                    ]
2332                                )
2333                            )
2334                        ]
2335                    )
2336                kind = ""
2337
2338        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2339        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2340        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2341        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2342        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2343            expression,
2344            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2345            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2346            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2347        )
2348
2349        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2350
2351        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2352            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2353                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2354            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2355                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2356            else:
2357                table_kind = ""
2358            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2359
2360        return sql
2361
2362    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2364        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2365        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2366
2367    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2368        if expression.expressions:
2369            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2370        return ""
2371
2372    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2373        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2374        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2375        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2376        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2377        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2378        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2379        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2380
2381    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2384
2385    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        kind = expression.text("kind")
2388        if kind:
2389            kind = f"{kind}."
2390        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2391
2392    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2393        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2394
2395    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2396        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2397        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2398
2399        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2400        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2401
2402        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2403        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2404
2405    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2406        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2407        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2408
2409    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2410        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2411            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2412            order = expression.args.get("order")
2413
2414            if limit or order:
2415                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2416
2417                if limit:
2418                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2419                if order:
2420                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2421                return self.sql(select)
2422
2423        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2424        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2425
2426        while stack:
2427            node = stack.pop()
2428
2429            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2430                stack.append(node.expression)
2431                stack.append(
2432                    self.maybe_comment(
2433                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2434                        comments=node.comments,
2435                        separated=True,
2436                    )
2437                )
2438                stack.append(node.this)
2439            else:
2440                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2441
2442        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2443        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2444        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2445
2446    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2447        return self.set_operations(expression)
2448
2449    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2450        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2451        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2452        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2453        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2454
2455    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2456        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2457
2458        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2459        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2460
2461        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2462            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2463                alias.append("columns", offset)
2464
2465        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2466            columns = alias.columns
2467            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2468        else:
2469            alias = self.sql(alias)
2470
2471        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2472        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2473            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2474        else:
2475            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2476                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2477            elif offset:
2478                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2479            else:
2480                suffix = alias
2481
2482        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2483
2484    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2485        return ""
2486
2487    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2488        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2489        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2490
2491    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2493        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2494        order = expression.args.get("order")
2495        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2496        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2497        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2498        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2499
2500        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2501
2502        first = expression.args.get("first")
2503        if first is None:
2504            first = ""
2505        else:
2506            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2507
2508        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2509            return f"{this} {alias}"
2510
2511        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2512        return f"{this} ({args})"
2513
2514    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2515        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2516        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2517
2518    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2519        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2520        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2521        end = (
2522            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2523            or "CURRENT ROW"
2524        )
2525        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2526
2527    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2530        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2531
2532    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2535        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2536        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2537
2538    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2539        return apply_index_offset(
2540            expression.this,
2541            expression.expressions,
2542            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2543        )
2544
2545    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2546        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2547        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2548        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2549
2550    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2551        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2552
2553    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2556            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2557                this = self.wrap(this)
2558            return f"ANY{this}"
2559        return f"ANY {this}"
2560
2561    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2562        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2563
2564    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2566        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2567
2568        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2569            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2570            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2571
2572        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2573
2574        if default:
2575            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2576
2577        statements.append("END")
2578
2579        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2580            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2581
2582        return " ".join(statements)
2583
2584    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2587        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2588
2589    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2590        order = expression.args.get("order")
2591        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2592        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2593
2594    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2596        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2597        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2598
2599    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2600        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2601
2602        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2603            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2604        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2605            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2606        else:
2607            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2608
2609    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2610        args = expression.expressions
2611        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2612            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2613
2614        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2615            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2616
2617        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2618            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2619
2620        return args
2621
2622    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2623        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2624
2625        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2626        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2627            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2628
2629        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2630
2631    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2632        return self.func(
2633            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2634        )
2635
2636    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2637        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2638        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2639
2640    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2641        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2642        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2643        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2644        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2645        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2646        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2647        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2648        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2649
2650    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2651        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2652        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2653        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2654        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2655
2656    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2657        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2658
2659    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2660        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2661        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2662        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2663
2664    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2665        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2666
2667    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2668        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2669        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2670            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2671
2672        return path
2673
2674    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2675        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2676            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2677            if not callable(transform):
2678                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2679                return ""
2680
2681            return transform(self, expression)
2682
2683        if isinstance(expression, int):
2684            return str(expression)
2685
2686        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2687            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2688            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2689        else:
2690            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2691            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2692
2693        return escaped
2694
2695    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2696        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2697
2698    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2699        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2700        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2701
2702        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2703        if unique_keys is not None:
2704            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2705        else:
2706            unique_keys = ""
2707
2708        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2709        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2710        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2711        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2712
2713        return self.func(
2714            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2715            *expression.expressions,
2716            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2717        )
2718
2719    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2720        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2721
2722    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2723        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2724        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2725        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2726        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2727        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2728        return self.func(
2729            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2730        )
2731
2732    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2735        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2736        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2737        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2738        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2739        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2740        return self.func(
2741            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2742            this,
2743            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2744        )
2745
2746    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2747        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2748        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2749        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2750
2751        if nested_schema:
2752            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2753
2754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2755        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2756        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2757        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2758
2759    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2760        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2761
2762    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2764        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2765        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2766        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2767        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2768        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2769        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2770        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2771        return self.func(
2772            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2773        )
2774
2775    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2777        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2778        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2779        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2780        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2781        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2782
2783    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2785        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2786        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2787        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2788        with_ = (
2789            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2790            if expressions
2791            else ""
2792        )
2793        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2794
2795    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2796        query = expression.args.get("query")
2797        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2798        field = expression.args.get("field")
2799        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2800
2801        if query:
2802            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2803        elif unnest:
2804            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2805        elif field:
2806            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2807        else:
2808            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2809
2810        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2811
2812    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2813        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2814
2815    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2816        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2817        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2818            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2819        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2820
2821        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2822            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2823            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2824
2825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2826        if this:
2827            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2828            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2829
2830        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2831
2832    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2833        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2834
2835    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2837        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2838        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2839        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2840        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2841        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2842
2843    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2844        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2845
2846    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2847        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2848        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2849
2850    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2851        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2852        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2853        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2854        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2855
2856    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2857        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2858
2859    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2860        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2861        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2862        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2863
2864    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2865        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2866        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2867
2868        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2869            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2870        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2871            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2872
2873        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2874
2875    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2877
2878    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2881        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2882
2883    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2886        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2887
2888    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2890        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2891        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2892
2893    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2894        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2895
2896    def and_sql(
2897        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2898    ) -> str:
2899        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2900
2901    def or_sql(
2902        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2903    ) -> str:
2904        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2905
2906    def xor_sql(
2907        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2908    ) -> str:
2909        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2910
2911    def connector_sql(
2912        self,
2913        expression: exp.Connector,
2914        op: str,
2915        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2916    ) -> str:
2917        if stack is not None:
2918            if expression.expressions:
2919                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2920            else:
2921                stack.append(expression.right)
2922                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2923                    for comment in expression.comments:
2924                        if comment:
2925                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2926                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2927            return op
2928
2929        stack = [expression]
2930        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2931        ops = set()
2932
2933        while stack:
2934            node = stack.pop()
2935            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2936                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2937            else:
2938                sql = self.sql(node)
2939                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2940                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2941                else:
2942                    sqls.append(sql)
2943
2944        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2945        return sep.join(sqls)
2946
2947    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2948        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2949
2950    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2951        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2952
2953    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2954        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2955
2956    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2957        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2958
2959    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2960        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2961
2962    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2963        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2964
2965    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2966        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2967        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2968        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2969        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2970        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2971        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2972        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2973
2974    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2975        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2977
2978    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2979        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2980
2981    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2982        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2983            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2984        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2985
2986    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2987        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2988
2989    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2992        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2993        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2994        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2995        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2996
2997    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2999        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3000        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3001        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3002        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3003        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3004        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3005        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3006        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3007
3008    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3009        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3010        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3011        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3012        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3013
3014        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3015            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3016
3017        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3018
3019    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3020        return "BEGIN"
3021
3022    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3023        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3024        if chain is not None:
3025            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3026
3027        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3028
3029    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3030        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3031        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3032        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3033
3034    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3036
3037        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3038        if dtype:
3039            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3040            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3041            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3042            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3043            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3044
3045        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3046        if default:
3047            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3048
3049        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3050        if comment:
3051            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3052
3053        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3054        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3055
3056        if not drop and not allow_null:
3057            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3058
3059        if allow_null is not None:
3060            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3061            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3062
3063        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3064
3065    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3067        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3068            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3069        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3070
3071    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3072        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3074        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3075        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3076        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3077
3078    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3079        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3080            # Remove db from tables
3081            expression = expression.transform(
3082                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3083            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3085        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3086
3087    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3088        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3089        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3090        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3091        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3092
3093    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3094        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3095        return f"SET {exprs}"
3096
3097    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3098        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3099
3100        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3101            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3102        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3103            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3104        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3105            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3106        else:
3107            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3108
3109        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3110        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3111        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3112        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3113        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3114        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3115        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3116
3117    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3118        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3119            return self.expressions(
3120                expression,
3121                key="actions",
3122                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3123            )
3124        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3125
3126    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3127        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3128        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3129        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3130
3131    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3132        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3133
3134    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3135        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3136
3137        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3138            case = exp.case()
3139            for arg in expression.expressions:
3140                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3141            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3142
3143        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3144
3145        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3146        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3147        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3148
3149    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3150        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3151
3152    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3153        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3154
3155    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3156        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3157        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3158        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3159        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3160
3161    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3162        return self.sql(
3163            exp.Cast(
3164                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3165                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3166            )
3167        )
3168
3169    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3170        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3171            return self.func(
3172                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3173            )
3174        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3175
3176    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3177        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3178
3179        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3180            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3181
3182        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3183            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3184                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3185
3186        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3187            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3188                return self.sql(
3189                    exp.cast(
3190                        l / r,
3191                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3192                    )
3193                )
3194
3195        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3196
3197    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3198        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3199
3200    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3201        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3202
3203    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3204        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3205
3206    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3207        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3208
3209    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3210        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3211
3212    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3213        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3214
3215    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3216        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3217
3218    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3219        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3220
3221    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3222        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3223
3224    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3226
3227    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3228        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3229
3230    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3231        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3232            return self.sql(
3233                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3234            )
3235        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3236
3237    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3239
3240    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3242
3243    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3245
3246    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3248
3249    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3251
3252    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3254
3255    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3257
3258    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3260
3261    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3263
3264    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3266
3267    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3269
3270    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3271        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3272
3273    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3274        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3275
3276    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3277        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3278            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3279            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3280
3281        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3282
3283    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3284        this = expression.this
3285        expr = expression.expression
3286
3287        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3288            this, expr = expr, this
3289        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3290            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3291                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3292
3293            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3294
3295        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3296
3297    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3298        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3299        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3301        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3302        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3303
3304    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3305        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3306        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3307
3308    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3309        args = []
3310
3311        for key in expression.arg_types:
3312            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3313
3314            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3315                for value in arg_value:
3316                    args.append(value)
3317            elif arg_value is not None:
3318                args.append(arg_value)
3319
3320        if self.normalize_functions:
3321            name = expression.sql_name()
3322        else:
3323            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3324
3325        return self.func(name, *args)
3326
3327    def func(
3328        self,
3329        name: str,
3330        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3331        prefix: str = "(",
3332        suffix: str = ")",
3333    ) -> str:
3334        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3335
3336    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3337        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3338        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3339            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3340        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3341
3342    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3343        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3344
3345    def format_time(
3346        self,
3347        expression: exp.Expression,
3348        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3349        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3350    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3351        return format_time(
3352            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3353            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3354            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3355        )
3356
3357    def expressions(
3358        self,
3359        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3360        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3361        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3362        flat: bool = False,
3363        indent: bool = True,
3364        skip_first: bool = False,
3365        skip_last: bool = False,
3366        sep: str = ", ",
3367        prefix: str = "",
3368        dynamic: bool = False,
3369        new_line: bool = False,
3370    ) -> str:
3371        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3372
3373        if not expressions:
3374            return ""
3375
3376        if flat:
3377            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3378
3379        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3380
3381        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3382        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3383            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3384
3385        result_sqls = []
3386        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3387            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3388            if not sql:
3389                continue
3390
3391            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3392
3393            if self.pretty:
3394                if self.leading_comma:
3395                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3396                else:
3397                    result_sqls.append(
3398                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3399                    )
3400            else:
3401                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3402
3403        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3404            if new_line:
3405                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3406                result_sqls.append("")
3407            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3408        else:
3409            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3410        return (
3411            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3412            if indent
3413            else result_sql
3414        )
3415
3416    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3417        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3418        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3419        if flat:
3420            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3421        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3422
3423    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3424        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3425        if not property_name:
3426            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3427        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3428
3429    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3430        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3431
3432    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3433        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3434
3435    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3437        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3438        expressions = (
3439            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3440        )
3441        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3442
3443    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3445        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3446        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3447
3448    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3449        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3450
3451    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3452        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3453        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3454        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3455        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3456
3457        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3458        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3459            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3460            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3461            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3462            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3463        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3464            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3465                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3466            else:
3467                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3468        else:
3469            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3470        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3471
3472    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3473        table = expression.this
3474        table_alias = ""
3475
3476        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3477        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3478            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3479            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3480
3481        this = self.sql(table)
3482        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3483        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3484        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3485        sep = self.sep()
3486
3487        return self.prepend_ctes(
3488            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3489        )
3490
3491    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3492        if expression.args.get("format"):
3493            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3494
3495        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3496
3497    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3498        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3499            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3500            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3501
3502        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3503        if not fmt:
3504            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3505            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3506
3507        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3508
3509    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3511        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3512        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3513        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3514        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3515
3516    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3518        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3519        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3520        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3521
3522    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3523        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3524
3525    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3526        return ""
3527
3528    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3529        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3530        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3531        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3532        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3533        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3534
3535    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3537        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3538
3539        if having:
3540            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3541
3542        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3543
3544    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3545        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3546        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3547        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3548        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3549        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3550        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3551        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3552        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3553        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3554        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3555        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3556        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3557        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3558
3559    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3560        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3561        if key_block_size:
3562            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3563
3564        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3565        if using:
3566            return f"USING {using}"
3567
3568        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3569        if parser:
3570            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3571
3572        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3573        if comment:
3574            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3575
3576        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3577        if visible is not None:
3578            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3579
3580        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3581        if engine_attr:
3582            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3583
3584        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3585        if secondary_engine_attr:
3586            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3587
3588        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3589        return ""
3590
3591    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3592        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3593        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3594
3595    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3596        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3597        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3598        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3599        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3600        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3601        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3602        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3603        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3604        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3605        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3606        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3607
3608    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3609        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3610            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3611
3612        case = exp.Case().when(
3613            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3614            expression.args["true"],
3615            copy=False,
3616        )
3617        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3618        if else_cond:
3619            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3620
3621        return self.sql(case)
3622
3623    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3624        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3625        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3626        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3627        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3628        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3629        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3630
3631    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3632        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3633
3634    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3635        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3636
3637    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3638        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3640        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3641        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3642        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3643        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3644
3645    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3647        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3648        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3649
3650    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3652        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3653        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3654
3655    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3656        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3657
3658    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3659        arg = expression.this
3660        if not arg.type:
3661            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3662
3663            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3664
3665        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3666            return self.sql(arg)
3667
3668        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3669        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3670
3671    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3672        this = expression.this
3673        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3674            return self.sql(this)
3675
3676        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3677
3678    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3679        this = expression.this
3680        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3681            return self.sql(this)
3682
3683        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3684
3685    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3686        this = expression.this
3687        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3688
3689        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3690            return self.sql(
3691                exp.cast(
3692                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3693                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3694                )
3695            )
3696
3697        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3698            return self.sql(this)
3699
3700        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3701
3702    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3703        return self.sql(
3704            exp.func(
3705                "DATEDIFF",
3706                expression.this,
3707                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3708                "day",
3709            )
3710        )
3711
3712    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3713        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3714            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3715
3716        unit = expression.text("unit")
3717        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3718            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3719
3720        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3721
3722    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3723        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3724
3725        return self.func(
3726            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3727        )
3728
3729    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3730        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3731            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3732            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3733            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3734            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3735
3736        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3737
3738        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3739        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3740            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3741
3742        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3743
3744    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3745        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3746        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3747
3748    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3749        expression.set(
3750            "expressions",
3751            [
3752                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3753                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3754                else e
3755                for e in expression.expressions
3756            ],
3757        )
3758
3759        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3760
3761    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3762        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3763        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3764
3765        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3766
3767    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3768        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3769        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3770
3771        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3772
3773        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3774        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3775
3776        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3777        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3778
3779        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3780        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3781
3782        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3783        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3784
3785        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3786
3787    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3788    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3789    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3790        to = expression.this
3791        value = expression.expression
3792        style = expression.args.get("style")
3793        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3794        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3795
3796        if not to or not value:
3797            return ""
3798
3799        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3800        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3801            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3802
3803        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3804        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3805
3806        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3807        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3808            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3809
3810            style_value = style.name
3811            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3812            if not converted_style:
3813                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3814
3815            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3816
3817            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3818                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3819            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3820                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3821            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3822                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3823            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3824                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3825
3826        if not transformed:
3827            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3828
3829        return self.sql(transformed)
3830
3831    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3832        this = expression.this
3833        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3834            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3835            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3836
3837        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3838            return f".{this}"
3839
3840        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3841        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3842
3843    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3844        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3845        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3846
3847    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3848        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3849            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3850
3851            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3852
3853        return expression
3854
3855    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3856        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3857            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3858            mods = sorted(
3859                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3860                key=lambda x: 0
3861                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3862                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3863            )
3864
3865            if mods:
3866                mod = mods[0]
3867                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3868                this.meta["inline"] = True
3869                mod.this.replace(this)
3870                return self.sql(expression.this)
3871
3872            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3873
3874            if agg_func:
3875                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3876
3877        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3878
3879    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3880        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3881        if self.pretty:
3882            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3883        return string
3884
3885    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3886        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3887
3888        if expression.expressions:
3889            upper = option.upper()
3890
3891            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3892            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3893
3894            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3895            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3896            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3897            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3898
3899        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3900
3901        if not value:
3902            return option
3903
3904        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3905
3906        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3907
3908    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3909        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3910        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3911            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3912            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3913            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3914        else:
3915            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3916            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3917            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3918
3919        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3920        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3921
3922        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3923        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3924
3925        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3926        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3927
3928        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3929        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3930
3931        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3932
3933    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3935        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3936
3937        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3938        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3939        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3940        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3941
3942        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3943        params = self.expressions(
3944            expression,
3945            key="params",
3946            sep=sep,
3947            new_line=True,
3948            skip_last=True,
3949            skip_first=True,
3950            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3951        )
3952
3953        if params:
3954            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3955                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3956            elif not self.pretty:
3957                params = f" {params}"
3958
3959        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3960
3961    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3962        return ""
3963
3964    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3965        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3966        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3967        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3968        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3969        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3970
3971        if filter_col or retention_period:
3972            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3973
3974        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3975
3976    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3977        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3978    ) -> str:
3979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3981        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3982        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3983
3984    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3986        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3987        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
3988
3989    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3990        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
3991
3992    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3994        expr = expression.expression
3995
3996        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
3997            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
3998            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
3999        else:
4000            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4001
4002        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4003
4004    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4005        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4006            return self.sql(expression.this)
4007
4008        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
571    def __init__(
572        self,
573        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
574        identify: str | bool = False,
575        normalize: bool = False,
576        pad: int = 2,
577        indent: int = 2,
578        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
579        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
580        max_unsupported: int = 3,
581        leading_comma: bool = False,
582        max_text_width: int = 80,
583        comments: bool = True,
584        dialect: DialectType = None,
585    ):
586        import sqlglot
587        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
588
589        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
590        self.identify = identify
591        self.normalize = normalize
592        self.pad = pad
593        self._indent = indent
594        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
595        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
596        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
597        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
598        self.comments = comments
599        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
600
601        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
602        self.normalize_functions = (
603            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
604        )
605
606        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
607        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
608            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
609        )
610        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
611            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
612        )
613
614        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
616    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
617        """
618        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
619
620        Args:
621            expression: The syntax tree.
622            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
623                it is safer to copy.
624
625        Returns:
626            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
627        """
628        if copy:
629            expression = expression.copy()
630
631        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
632
633        self.unsupported_messages = []
634        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
635
636        if self.pretty:
637            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
638
639        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
640            return sql
641
642        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
643            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
644                logger.warning(msg)
645        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
646            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
647
648        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
650    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
651        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
652        if (
653            not expression.parent
654            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
655            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
656        ):
657            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
658
659            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
660
661        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
662            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
663
664            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
665
666        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
668    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
669        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
670            raise UnsupportedError(message)
671        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
673    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
674        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
676    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
677        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
679    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
680        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
681        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
682        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
684    def maybe_comment(
685        self,
686        sql: str,
687        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
688        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
689        separated: bool = False,
690    ) -> str:
691        comments = (
692            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
693            if self.comments
694            else None
695        )
696
697        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
698            return sql
699
700        comments_sql = " ".join(
701            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
702        )
703
704        if not comments_sql:
705            return sql
706
707        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
708
709        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
710            return (
711                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
712                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
713                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
714            )
715
716        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
718    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
719        this_sql = (
720            self.sql(expression)
721            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
722            else self.sql(expression, "this")
723        )
724        if not this_sql:
725            return "()"
726
727        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
728        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
730    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
731        original = self.identify
732        self.identify = False
733        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
734        self.identify = original
735        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
737    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
738        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
739            return name.upper()
740        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
741            return name.lower()
742        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
744    def indent(
745        self,
746        sql: str,
747        level: int = 0,
748        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
749        skip_first: bool = False,
750        skip_last: bool = False,
751    ) -> str:
752        if not self.pretty or not sql:
753            return sql
754
755        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
756        lines = sql.split("\n")
757
758        return "\n".join(
759            (
760                line
761                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
762                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
763            )
764            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
765        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
767    def sql(
768        self,
769        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
770        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
771        comment: bool = True,
772    ) -> str:
773        if not expression:
774            return ""
775
776        if isinstance(expression, str):
777            return expression
778
779        if key:
780            value = expression.args.get(key)
781            if value:
782                return self.sql(value)
783            return ""
784
785        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
786
787        if callable(transform):
788            sql = transform(self, expression)
789        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
790            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
791
792            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
793                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
794            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
795                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
796            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
797                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
798            else:
799                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
800        else:
801            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
802
803        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
805    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
806        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
807        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
808        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
810    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
811        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
812        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
813        options = expression.args.get("options")
814        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
815        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
816        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
817        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
818        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
820    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
821        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
822            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
823        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
824        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
826    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
827        return ".".join(
828            self.sql(part)
829            for part in (
830                expression.args.get("catalog"),
831                expression.args.get("db"),
832                expression.args.get("table"),
833                expression.args.get("this"),
834            )
835            if part
836        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
838    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
839        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
840
841        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
842            join_mark = ""
843            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
844
845        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
847    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
849        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
850        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
851        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
853    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
854        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
855        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
856        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
857        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
858        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
859        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
860        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
861        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
862
863        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
864            kind = ""
865
866        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
868    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
870        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
871        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
873    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
875        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
876            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
877        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
878            persisted = " PERSISTED"
879        else:
880            persisted = ""
881        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
883    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
884        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
886    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
887        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
888            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
889        else:
890            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
891
892        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
894    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
895        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
896    ) -> str:
897        this = ""
898        if expression.this is not None:
899            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
900            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
901
902        start = expression.args.get("start")
903        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
904        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
905        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
906        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
907        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
908        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
909        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
910        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
911        cycle_sql = ""
912
913        if cycle is not None:
914            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
915            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
916
917        sequence_opts = ""
918        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
919            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
920            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
921
922        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
923        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
924
925        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
927    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
928        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
929    ) -> str:
930        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
931        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
932        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
934    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
935        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
936    ) -> str:
937        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
939    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
940        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
942    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
943        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
945    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
946        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
947        if desc is not None:
948            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
949        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
951    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
953        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
954        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
955        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
956        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
957        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
958        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
960    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
961        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 963    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 964        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 965        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 966        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 967
 968        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 969
 970        properties_sql = ""
 971        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 972            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 973        ):
 974            properties_sql = self.sql(
 975                exp.Properties(
 976                    expressions=[
 977                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 978                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 979                    ]
 980                )
 981            )
 982
 983            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 984                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 985            elif not self.pretty:
 986                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 987                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 988
 989        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 990        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 991
 992        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 993        if expression_sql:
 994            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 995
 996            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 997                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 998                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 999                        exp.Properties(
1000                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1001                        ),
1002                        wrapped=False,
1003                    )
1004                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1005                else:
1006                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1007
1008        postindex_props_sql = ""
1009        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1010            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1011                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1012                wrapped=False,
1013                prefix=" ",
1014            )
1015
1016        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1017        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1018        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1019
1020        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1021        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1022
1023        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1024        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1025            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1026                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1027                sep=" ",
1028                prefix=" ",
1029                wrapped=False,
1030            )
1031
1032        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1033
1034        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1035        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1036            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1037                exp.Properties(
1038                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1039                ),
1040                sep=" ",
1041                prefix=" ",
1042                wrapped=False,
1043            )
1044
1045        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1046        no_schema_binding = (
1047            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1048        )
1049
1050        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1051        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1052
1053        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1054        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1056    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1057        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1058        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1059        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1060        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1061        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1062        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1063        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1064        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1065        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1066        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1067
1068        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1069        if cache is None:
1070            cache_str = ""
1071        elif cache is True:
1072            cache_str = " CACHE"
1073        else:
1074            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1075
1076        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1077        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1078
1079        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1081    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1084        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1085        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1087    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1088        style = expression.args.get("style")
1089        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1090        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1092    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1093        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1094        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1096    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1097        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1098        if with_:
1099            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1100        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1102    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1103        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1104        recursive = (
1105            "RECURSIVE "
1106            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1107            else ""
1108        )
1109
1110        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1112    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1113        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1114
1115        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1116        if materialized is False:
1117            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1118        elif materialized:
1119            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1120
1121        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1123    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1124        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1125        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1126        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1127
1128        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1129            columns = ""
1130            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1131
1132        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1133            alias = self._next_name()
1134
1135        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1137    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1138        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1139        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1140            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1141        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1143    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1146            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1147        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1149    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1151        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1152            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1153        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1155    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1156        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1157        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1158
1159        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1160            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1161            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1162        else:
1163            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1164            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1165
1166        if escape:
1167            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1168            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1169        else:
1170            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1171            escape_sql = ""
1172
1173        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1174            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1175
1176        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1178    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1179        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1180        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1182    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1185        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1186        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1188    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1189        type_value = expression.this
1190
1191        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1192            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1193        else:
1194            type_sql = (
1195                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1196                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1197                else type_value
1198            )
1199
1200        nested = ""
1201        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1202        values = ""
1203
1204        if interior:
1205            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1206                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1207                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1208                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1209                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1210                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1211            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1212                nested = f" {interior}"
1213            else:
1214                nested = f"({interior})"
1215
1216        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1217        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1218            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1219            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1220        ):
1221            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1222
1223        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1225    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1226        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1227        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1228        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1229        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1231    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1234        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1235        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1236        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1237        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1238        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1239        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1240        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1241        if self.RETURNING_END:
1242            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1243        else:
1244            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1245        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1247    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1249        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1250        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1251        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1252        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1253        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1254        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1255        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1256        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1257        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1258        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1259        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1260        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1262    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1263        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1265    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1266        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1268    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1269        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1270        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1271        count = expression.args.get("count")
1272        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1273        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1274            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1275        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1276        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1278    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1279        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1280            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1281            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1282            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1283
1284        agg = expression.this
1285        agg_arg = agg.this
1286        cond = expression.expression.this
1287        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1288        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1290    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1291        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1292            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1293            return ""
1294
1295        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1297    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1298        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1299        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1300        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1301        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1302        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1303        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1304        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1305        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1306        if include:
1307            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1308        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1309        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1310        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1311        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1312        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1313        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1314
1315        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1317    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1318        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1319        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1320        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1321        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1323        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1324        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1325
1326        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1327
1328        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1329        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1331    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1332        text = expression.name
1333        lower = text.lower()
1334        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1335        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1336        if (
1337            expression.quoted
1338            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1339            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1340            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1341        ):
1342            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1343        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1345    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1346        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1347        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1348            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1349
1350        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1352    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1353        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1354        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1355            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1356        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1358    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1359        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1360        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1361        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1362        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1363        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1365    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1366        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1367        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1369    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1370        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1372    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1373        root_properties = []
1374        with_properties = []
1375
1376        for p in expression.expressions:
1377            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1378            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1379                with_properties.append(p)
1380            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1381                root_properties.append(p)
1382
1383        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1384        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1385
1386        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1387            with_props = " " + with_props
1388
1389        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1391    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1392        if properties.expressions:
1393            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1394        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1396    def properties(
1397        self,
1398        properties: exp.Properties,
1399        prefix: str = "",
1400        sep: str = ", ",
1401        suffix: str = "",
1402        wrapped: bool = True,
1403    ) -> str:
1404        if properties.expressions:
1405            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1406            if expressions:
1407                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1408                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1409        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1411    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1412        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1414    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1415        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1416        for p in properties.expressions:
1417            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1418            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1419                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1420            else:
1421                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1422
1423        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1425    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1426        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1427            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1428        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1430    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1431        property_cls = expression.__class__
1432        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1433            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1434
1435        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1436        if not property_name:
1437            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1438
1439        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1441    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1442        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1443            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1444            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1445
1446            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1447            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1448                like = f"({like})"
1449
1450            return like
1451
1452        if expression.expressions:
1453            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1454
1455        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1456        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1458    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1459        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1460        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1461        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1463    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1464        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1465        local = expression.args.get("local")
1466        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1467        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1468        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1469        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1470        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1472    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1473        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1474        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1475        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1477    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1478        if expression.args.get("default"):
1479            property = "DEFAULT"
1480        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1481            property = "ON"
1482        else:
1483            property = "OFF"
1484        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1486    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1487        if expression.args.get("no"):
1488            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1489        if expression.args.get("default"):
1490            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1491
1492        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1493        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1495    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1496        default = expression.args.get("default")
1497        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1498        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1499        if default or minimum or maximum:
1500            if default:
1501                prop = "DEFAULT"
1502            elif minimum:
1503                prop = "MINIMUM"
1504            else:
1505                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1506            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1507        units = expression.args.get("units")
1508        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1509        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1511    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1512        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1513        always = expression.args.get("always")
1514        default = expression.args.get("default")
1515        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1516        never = expression.args.get("never")
1517
1518        if autotemp is not None:
1519            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1520        elif always:
1521            prop = "ALWAYS"
1522        elif default:
1523            prop = "DEFAULT"
1524        elif manual:
1525            prop = "MANUAL"
1526        elif never:
1527            prop = "NEVER"
1528        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1530    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1531        no = expression.args.get("no")
1532        no = " NO" if no else ""
1533        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1534        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1535        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1536        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1537        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1539    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1540        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1541            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1542        if expression.this:
1543            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1544            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1545            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1546
1547        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1548        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1549        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1551    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1553
1554        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1555        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1556            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1557        else:
1558            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1559
1560        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1562    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1563        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1564        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1565        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1566        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1567        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1568        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1569        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1571    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1572        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1573        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1574        statistics_sql = ""
1575        if statistics is not None:
1576            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1577        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1579    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1581        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1582        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1583        data_consistency = (
1584            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1585        )
1586        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1587        retention_period = (
1588            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1589        )
1590
1591        if this:
1592            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1593        else:
1594            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1595
1596        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1597
1598        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1600    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1601        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1602        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1603
1604        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1605            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1606        else:
1607            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1608
1609        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1610        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1611        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1612        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1613        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1614        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1615        if is_function:
1616            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1617        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1618
1619        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1620        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1621        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1622        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1623        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1624        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1625        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1626        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1627
1628        if self.RETURNING_END:
1629            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1630        else:
1631            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1632
1633        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1634        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1636    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1637        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1639    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1640        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1642    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1643        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1645    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1646        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1647        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1649        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1650        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1652    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1653        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1655    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1656        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1658    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1659        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1660
1661        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1662        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1663
1664        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1665        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1666        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1667
1668        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1669        if expressions:
1670            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1671            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1672
1673        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1675    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1676        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1678    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1679        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1680        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1681        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1682        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1683        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1684        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1685        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1686        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1687        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1688        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1689        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1690        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1691        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1693    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1694        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1696    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1697        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1698        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1699        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1700        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1702    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1705        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1706        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1708    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1709        return ".".join(
1710            self.sql(part)
1711            for part in (
1712                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1713                expression.args.get("db"),
1714                expression.args.get("this"),
1715            )
1716            if part is not None
1717        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1719    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1720        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1721        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1722        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1723        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1724        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1725        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1726        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1727        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1728        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1729        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1730        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1731        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1732        joins = self.indent(
1733            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1734        )
1735        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1736
1737        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1738        if file_format:
1739            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1740            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1741            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1742
1743        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1744        if ordinality:
1745            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1746            alias = ""
1747
1748        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1749        if when:
1750            table = f"{table} {when}"
1751
1752        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1754    def tablesample_sql(
1755        self,
1756        expression: exp.TableSample,
1757        sep: str = " AS ",
1758        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1759    ) -> str:
1760        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1761            table = expression.this.copy()
1762            table.set("alias", None)
1763            this = self.sql(table)
1764            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1765        else:
1766            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1767            alias = ""
1768
1769        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1770        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1771        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1772        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1773        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1774        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1775        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1776        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1777        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1778
1779        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1780        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1781            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1782
1783        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1784        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1785            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1786
1787        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1788        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1789            expr = f"({expr})"
1790
1791        return (
1792            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1793        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1795    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1796        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1797
1798        if expression.this:
1799            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1800            if not expressions:
1801                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1802
1803            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1804            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1805            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1806            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1807            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1808
1809        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1810        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1811        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1812        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1813        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1814        if include_nulls is not None:
1815            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1816        else:
1817            nulls = ""
1818        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1820    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1821        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1822        kind = expression.text("kind")
1823        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1824        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1826    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1827        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1829    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1831        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1832        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1833        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1834        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1835        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1836        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1837        if self.RETURNING_END:
1838            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1839        else:
1840            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1841        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1842        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1844    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1845        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1846
1847        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1848        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1849            args = self.expressions(expression)
1850            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1851            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1852            values = (
1853                f"({values})"
1854                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1855                else values
1856            )
1857            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1858
1859        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1860        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1861        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1862
1863        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1864
1865        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1866            row = tup.expressions
1867
1868            if i == 0 and column_names:
1869                row = [
1870                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1871                ]
1872
1873            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1874
1875        if self.pretty:
1876            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1877            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1878            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1879            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1880            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1881
1882        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1883        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1884        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1886    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1887        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1889    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1890        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1891        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1892        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1894    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1895        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1897    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1898        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1899        if group_by_all is True:
1900            modifier = " ALL"
1901        elif group_by_all is False:
1902            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1903        else:
1904            modifier = ""
1905
1906        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1907
1908        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1909        grouping_sets = (
1910            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1911        )
1912
1913        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1914        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1915            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1916        else:
1917            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1918            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1919
1920        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1921        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1922            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1923        else:
1924            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1925            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1926
1927        groupings = csv(
1928            grouping_sets,
1929            cube_sql,
1930            rollup_sql,
1931            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1932            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1933        )
1934
1935        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1936            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1937
1938        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1940    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1941        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1942        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1944    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1945        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1946        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1947        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1948        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1949        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1950        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1952    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1953        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1955    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1956        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1957            side = None
1958        else:
1959            side = expression.side
1960
1961        op_sql = " ".join(
1962            op
1963            for op in (
1964                expression.method,
1965                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1966                side,
1967                expression.kind,
1968                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1969            )
1970            if op
1971        )
1972        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1973        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1974        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1975        using = expression.args.get("using")
1976
1977        if not on_sql and using:
1978            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1979
1980        this = expression.this
1981        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1982
1983        if on_sql:
1984            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1985            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1986            if using:
1987                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1988            else:
1989                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1990        elif not op_sql:
1991            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1992                return f" {this_sql}"
1993
1994            return f", {this_sql}"
1995
1996        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1997            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1998
1999        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2001    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2002        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2003        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2004        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2006    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2007        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2008
2009        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2010        if cross_apply is True:
2011            op = "INNER JOIN "
2012        elif cross_apply is False:
2013            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2014        else:
2015            op = ""
2016
2017        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2019    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2021
2022        if expression.args.get("view"):
2023            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2024            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2025            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2026            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2027            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2028            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2029
2030        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2031        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2032        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2034    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2036
2037        args = [
2038            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2039            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2040            if e
2041        ]
2042
2043        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2044        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2045        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2046        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2047
2048        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2050    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        value = expression.expression
2053        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2055        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2056        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2058    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2059        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2060        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2063        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2064        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2065        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2066        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2068    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2069        expressions = (
2070            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2071        )
2072        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2073        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2075    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2076        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2078    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2079        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2080            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2081            return ""
2082
2083        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2084        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2085        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2086        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2087
2088        if wait is not None:
2089            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2090                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2091            else:
2092                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2093
2094        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2096    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2097        text = expression.this or ""
2098        if expression.is_string:
2099            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2100        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2102    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2103        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2104            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2105            text = "".join(
2106                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2107            )
2108
2109        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2110            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2111        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2113    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2114        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2115        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2116        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2117        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2118        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2119        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2120        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2121        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2122        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2123        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2124        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2126    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2127        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2129    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2130        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2132    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2135        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2136        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2137        interpolated_values = [
2138            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2139            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2140        ]
2141        interpolate = (
2142            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2143        )
2144        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2146    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2147        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2148        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2149        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2150        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2151        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2152        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2153        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2155    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2156        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2158    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2159        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2161    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2162        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2164    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2165        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2166        asc = not desc
2167
2168        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2169        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2170        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2171        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2172        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2173
2174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2175
2176        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2177        nulls_sort_change = ""
2178        if nulls_first and (
2179            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2180        ):
2181            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2182        elif (
2183            nulls_last
2184            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2185            and not nulls_are_last
2186        ):
2187            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2188
2189        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2190        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2191            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2192            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2193                self.unsupported(
2194                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2195                )
2196                nulls_sort_change = ""
2197            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2198                if expression.this.is_int:
2199                    self.unsupported(
2200                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2201                    )
2202                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2203                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2204                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2205                nulls_sort_change = ""
2206
2207        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2208        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2209
2210        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2212    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2213        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2214        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2215
2216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2217
2218        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2220    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2221        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2222        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2223        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2224        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2225        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2226        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2227        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2228        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2229        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2230        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2231        definition_sqls = [
2232            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2233            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2234        ]
2235        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2236        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2237        body = "".join(
2238            (
2239                partition,
2240                order,
2241                measures,
2242                rows,
2243                after,
2244                pattern,
2245                define,
2246            )
2247        )
2248        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2249        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2250        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2252    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2253        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2254
2255        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2256            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2257        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2258            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2259
2260        return csv(
2261            *sqls,
2262            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2263            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2264            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2265            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2266            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2267            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2268            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2269            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2270            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2271            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2272            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2273            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2274            self.options_modifier(expression),
2275            sep="",
2276        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2278    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2279        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2280        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2282    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2283        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2285    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2286        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2287    ) -> t.List[str]:
2288        return [
2289            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2290            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2291        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2293    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2294        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2295        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2296        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2298    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2299        into = expression.args.get("into")
2300        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2301            into.pop()
2302
2303        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2304        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2305        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2306        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2307
2308        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2309        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2310            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2311            limit.pop()
2312        else:
2313            top = ""
2314
2315        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2316
2317        if kind:
2318            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2319                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2320            else:
2321                if kind == "STRUCT":
2322                    expressions = self.expressions(
2323                        sqls=[
2324                            self.sql(
2325                                exp.Struct(
2326                                    expressions=[
2327                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2328                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2329                                        else e
2330                                        for e in expression.expressions
2331                                    ]
2332                                )
2333                            )
2334                        ]
2335                    )
2336                kind = ""
2337
2338        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2339        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2340        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2341        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2342        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2343            expression,
2344            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2345            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2346            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2347        )
2348
2349        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2350
2351        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2352            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2353                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2354            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2355                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2356            else:
2357                table_kind = ""
2358            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2359
2360        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2362    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2364        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2365        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2367    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2368        if expression.expressions:
2369            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2370        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2372    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2373        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2374        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2375        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2376        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2377        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2378        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2379        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2381    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2385    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        kind = expression.text("kind")
2388        if kind:
2389            kind = f"{kind}."
2390        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2392    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2393        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2395    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2396        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2397        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2398
2399        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2400        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2401
2402        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2403        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2405    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2406        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2407        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2409    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2410        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2411            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2412            order = expression.args.get("order")
2413
2414            if limit or order:
2415                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2416
2417                if limit:
2418                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2419                if order:
2420                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2421                return self.sql(select)
2422
2423        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2424        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2425
2426        while stack:
2427            node = stack.pop()
2428
2429            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2430                stack.append(node.expression)
2431                stack.append(
2432                    self.maybe_comment(
2433                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2434                        comments=node.comments,
2435                        separated=True,
2436                    )
2437                )
2438                stack.append(node.this)
2439            else:
2440                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2441
2442        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2443        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2444        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2446    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2447        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2449    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2450        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2451        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2452        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2453        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2455    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2456        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2457
2458        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2459        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2460
2461        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2462            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2463                alias.append("columns", offset)
2464
2465        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2466            columns = alias.columns
2467            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2468        else:
2469            alias = self.sql(alias)
2470
2471        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2472        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2473            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2474        else:
2475            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2476                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2477            elif offset:
2478                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2479            else:
2480                suffix = alias
2481
2482        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2484    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2485        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2487    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2488        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2489        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2491    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2493        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2494        order = expression.args.get("order")
2495        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2496        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2497        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2498        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2499
2500        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2501
2502        first = expression.args.get("first")
2503        if first is None:
2504            first = ""
2505        else:
2506            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2507
2508        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2509            return f"{this} {alias}"
2510
2511        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2512        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2514    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2515        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2516        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2518    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2519        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2520        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2521        end = (
2522            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2523            or "CURRENT ROW"
2524        )
2525        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2527    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2530        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2532    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2535        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2536        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2538    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2539        return apply_index_offset(
2540            expression.this,
2541            expression.expressions,
2542            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2543        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2545    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2546        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2547        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2548        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2550    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2551        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2553    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2556            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2557                this = self.wrap(this)
2558            return f"ANY{this}"
2559        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2561    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2562        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2564    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2566        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2567
2568        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2569            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2570            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2571
2572        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2573
2574        if default:
2575            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2576
2577        statements.append("END")
2578
2579        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2580            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2581
2582        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2584    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2587        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2589    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2590        order = expression.args.get("order")
2591        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2592        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2594    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2596        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2597        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2599    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2600        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2601
2602        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2603            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2604        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2605            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2606        else:
2607            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2609    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2610        args = expression.expressions
2611        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2612            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2613
2614        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2615            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2616
2617        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2618            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2619
2620        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2622    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2623        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2624
2625        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2626        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2627            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2628
2629        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2631    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2632        return self.func(
2633            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2634        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2636    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2637        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2638        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2640    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2641        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2642        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2643        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2644        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2645        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2646        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2647        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2648        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2650    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2651        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2652        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2653        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2654        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2656    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2657        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2659    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2660        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2661        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2662        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2664    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2665        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2667    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2668        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2669        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2670            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2671
2672        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2674    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2675        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2676            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2677            if not callable(transform):
2678                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2679                return ""
2680
2681            return transform(self, expression)
2682
2683        if isinstance(expression, int):
2684            return str(expression)
2685
2686        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2687            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2688            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2689        else:
2690            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2691            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2692
2693        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2695    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2696        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2698    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2699        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2700        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2701
2702        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2703        if unique_keys is not None:
2704            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2705        else:
2706            unique_keys = ""
2707
2708        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2709        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2710        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2711        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2712
2713        return self.func(
2714            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2715            *expression.expressions,
2716            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2717        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2719    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2720        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2722    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2723        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2724        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2725        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2726        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2727        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2728        return self.func(
2729            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2730        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2732    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2735        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2736        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2737        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2738        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2739        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2740        return self.func(
2741            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2742            this,
2743            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2744        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2746    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2747        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2748        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2749        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2750
2751        if nested_schema:
2752            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2753
2754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2755        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2756        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2757        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2759    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2760        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2762    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2764        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2765        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2766        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2767        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2768        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2769        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2770        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2771        return self.func(
2772            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2773        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2775    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2777        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2778        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2779        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2780        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2781        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2783    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2785        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2786        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2787        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2788        with_ = (
2789            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2790            if expressions
2791            else ""
2792        )
2793        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2795    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2796        query = expression.args.get("query")
2797        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2798        field = expression.args.get("field")
2799        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2800
2801        if query:
2802            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2803        elif unnest:
2804            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2805        elif field:
2806            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2807        else:
2808            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2809
2810        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2812    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2813        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2815    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2816        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2817        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2818            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2819        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2820
2821        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2822            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2823            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2824
2825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2826        if this:
2827            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2828            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2829
2830        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2832    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2833        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2835    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2837        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2838        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2839        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2840        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2841        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2843    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2844        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2846    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2847        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2848        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2850    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2851        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2852        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2853        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2854        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2856    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2857        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2859    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2860        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2861        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2862        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2864    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2865        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2866        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2867
2868        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2869            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2870        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2871            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2872
2873        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2875    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2878    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2881        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2883    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2886        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2888    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2890        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2891        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2893    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2894        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2896    def and_sql(
2897        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2898    ) -> str:
2899        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2901    def or_sql(
2902        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2903    ) -> str:
2904        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2906    def xor_sql(
2907        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2908    ) -> str:
2909        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2911    def connector_sql(
2912        self,
2913        expression: exp.Connector,
2914        op: str,
2915        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2916    ) -> str:
2917        if stack is not None:
2918            if expression.expressions:
2919                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2920            else:
2921                stack.append(expression.right)
2922                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2923                    for comment in expression.comments:
2924                        if comment:
2925                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2926                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2927            return op
2928
2929        stack = [expression]
2930        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2931        ops = set()
2932
2933        while stack:
2934            node = stack.pop()
2935            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2936                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2937            else:
2938                sql = self.sql(node)
2939                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2940                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2941                else:
2942                    sqls.append(sql)
2943
2944        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2945        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2947    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2948        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2950    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2951        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2953    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2954        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2956    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2957        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2959    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2960        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2962    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2963        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2965    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2966        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2967        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2968        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2969        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2970        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2971        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2972        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2974    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2975        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2978    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2979        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2981    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2982        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2983            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2984        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2986    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2987        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2989    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2992        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2993        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2994        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2995        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2997    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2999        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3000        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3001        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3002        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3003        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3004        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3005        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3006        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3008    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3009        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3010        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3011        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3012        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3013
3014        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3015            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3016
3017        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3019    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3020        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3022    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3023        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3024        if chain is not None:
3025            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3026
3027        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3029    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3030        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3031        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3032        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3034    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3036
3037        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3038        if dtype:
3039            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3040            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3041            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3042            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3043            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3044
3045        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3046        if default:
3047            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3048
3049        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3050        if comment:
3051            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3052
3053        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3054        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3055
3056        if not drop and not allow_null:
3057            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3058
3059        if allow_null is not None:
3060            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3061            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3062
3063        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3065    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3067        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3068            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3069        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3071    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3072        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3074        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3075        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3076        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3078    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3079        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3080            # Remove db from tables
3081            expression = expression.transform(
3082                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3083            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3085        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3087    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3088        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3089        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3090        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3091        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3093    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3094        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3095        return f"SET {exprs}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3097    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3098        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3099
3100        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3101            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3102        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3103            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3104        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3105            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3106        else:
3107            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3108
3109        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3110        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3111        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3112        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3113        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3114        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3115        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3117    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3118        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3119            return self.expressions(
3120                expression,
3121                key="actions",
3122                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3123            )
3124        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3126    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3127        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3128        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3129        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3131    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3132        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3134    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3135        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3136
3137        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3138            case = exp.case()
3139            for arg in expression.expressions:
3140                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3141            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3142
3143        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3144
3145        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3146        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3147        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3149    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3150        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3152    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3153        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3155    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3156        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3157        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3158        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3159        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3161    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3162        return self.sql(
3163            exp.Cast(
3164                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3165                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3166            )
3167        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3169    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3170        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3171            return self.func(
3172                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3173            )
3174        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3176    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3177        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3178
3179        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3180            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3181
3182        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3183            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3184                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3185
3186        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3187            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3188                return self.sql(
3189                    exp.cast(
3190                        l / r,
3191                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3192                    )
3193                )
3194
3195        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3197    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3198        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3200    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3201        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3203    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3204        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3206    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3207        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3209    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3210        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3212    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3213        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3215    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3216        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3218    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3219        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3221    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3222        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3224    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3227    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3228        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3230    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3231        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3232            return self.sql(
3233                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3234            )
3235        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3237    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3240    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3243    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3246    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3249    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3252    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3255    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3258    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3261    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3264    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3267    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3270    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3271        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3273    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3274        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3276    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3277        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3278            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3279            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3280
3281        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3283    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3284        this = expression.this
3285        expr = expression.expression
3286
3287        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3288            this, expr = expr, this
3289        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3290            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3291                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3292
3293            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3294
3295        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3297    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3298        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3299        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3301        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3302        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3304    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3305        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3306        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3308    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3309        args = []
3310
3311        for key in expression.arg_types:
3312            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3313
3314            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3315                for value in arg_value:
3316                    args.append(value)
3317            elif arg_value is not None:
3318                args.append(arg_value)
3319
3320        if self.normalize_functions:
3321            name = expression.sql_name()
3322        else:
3323            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3324
3325        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3327    def func(
3328        self,
3329        name: str,
3330        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3331        prefix: str = "(",
3332        suffix: str = ")",
3333    ) -> str:
3334        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3336    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3337        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3338        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3339            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3340        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3342    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3343        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3345    def format_time(
3346        self,
3347        expression: exp.Expression,
3348        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3349        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3350    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3351        return format_time(
3352            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3353            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3354            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3355        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3357    def expressions(
3358        self,
3359        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3360        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3361        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3362        flat: bool = False,
3363        indent: bool = True,
3364        skip_first: bool = False,
3365        skip_last: bool = False,
3366        sep: str = ", ",
3367        prefix: str = "",
3368        dynamic: bool = False,
3369        new_line: bool = False,
3370    ) -> str:
3371        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3372
3373        if not expressions:
3374            return ""
3375
3376        if flat:
3377            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3378
3379        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3380
3381        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3382        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3383            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3384
3385        result_sqls = []
3386        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3387            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3388            if not sql:
3389                continue
3390
3391            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3392
3393            if self.pretty:
3394                if self.leading_comma:
3395                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3396                else:
3397                    result_sqls.append(
3398                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3399                    )
3400            else:
3401                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3402
3403        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3404            if new_line:
3405                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3406                result_sqls.append("")
3407            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3408        else:
3409            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3410        return (
3411            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3412            if indent
3413            else result_sql
3414        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3416    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3417        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3418        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3419        if flat:
3420            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3421        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3423    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3424        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3425        if not property_name:
3426            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3427        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3429    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3430        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3432    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3433        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3435    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3437        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3438        expressions = (
3439            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3440        )
3441        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3443    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3445        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3446        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3448    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3449        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3451    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3452        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3453        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3454        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3455        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3456
3457        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3458        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3459            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3460            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3461            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3462            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3463        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3464            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3465                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3466            else:
3467                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3468        else:
3469            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3470        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3472    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3473        table = expression.this
3474        table_alias = ""
3475
3476        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3477        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3478            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3479            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3480
3481        this = self.sql(table)
3482        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3483        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3484        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3485        sep = self.sep()
3486
3487        return self.prepend_ctes(
3488            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3489        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3491    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3492        if expression.args.get("format"):
3493            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3494
3495        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3497    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3498        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3499            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3500            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3501
3502        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3503        if not fmt:
3504            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3505            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3506
3507        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3509    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3511        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3512        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3513        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3514        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3516    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3518        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3519        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3520        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3522    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3523        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3525    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3526        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3528    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3529        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3530        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3531        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3532        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3533        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3535    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3537        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3538
3539        if having:
3540            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3541
3542        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3544    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3545        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3546        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3547        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3548        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3549        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3550        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3551        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3552        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3553        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3554        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3555        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3556        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3557        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3559    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3560        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3561        if key_block_size:
3562            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3563
3564        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3565        if using:
3566            return f"USING {using}"
3567
3568        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3569        if parser:
3570            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3571
3572        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3573        if comment:
3574            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3575
3576        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3577        if visible is not None:
3578            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3579
3580        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3581        if engine_attr:
3582            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3583
3584        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3585        if secondary_engine_attr:
3586            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3587
3588        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3589        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3591    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3592        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3593        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3595    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3596        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3597        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3598        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3599        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3600        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3601        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3602        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3603        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3604        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3605        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3606        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3608    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3609        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3610            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3611
3612        case = exp.Case().when(
3613            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3614            expression.args["true"],
3615            copy=False,
3616        )
3617        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3618        if else_cond:
3619            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3620
3621        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3623    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3624        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3625        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3626        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3627        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3628        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3629        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3631    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3632        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3634    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3635        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3637    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3638        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3640        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3641        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3642        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3643        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3645    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3647        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3648        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3650    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3652        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3653        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3655    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3656        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3658    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3659        arg = expression.this
3660        if not arg.type:
3661            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3662
3663            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3664
3665        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3666            return self.sql(arg)
3667
3668        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3669        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3671    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3672        this = expression.this
3673        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3674            return self.sql(this)
3675
3676        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3678    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3679        this = expression.this
3680        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3681            return self.sql(this)
3682
3683        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3685    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3686        this = expression.this
3687        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3688
3689        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3690            return self.sql(
3691                exp.cast(
3692                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3693                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3694                )
3695            )
3696
3697        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3698            return self.sql(this)
3699
3700        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3702    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3703        return self.sql(
3704            exp.func(
3705                "DATEDIFF",
3706                expression.this,
3707                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3708                "day",
3709            )
3710        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3712    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3713        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3714            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3715
3716        unit = expression.text("unit")
3717        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3718            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3719
3720        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3722    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3723        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3724
3725        return self.func(
3726            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3727        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3729    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3730        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3731            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3732            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3733            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3734            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3735
3736        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3737
3738        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3739        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3740            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3741
3742        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3744    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3745        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3746        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3748    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3749        expression.set(
3750            "expressions",
3751            [
3752                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3753                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3754                else e
3755                for e in expression.expressions
3756            ],
3757        )
3758
3759        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3761    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3762        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3763        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3764
3765        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3767    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3768        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3769        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3770
3771        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3772
3773        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3774        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3775
3776        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3777        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3778
3779        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3780        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3781
3782        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3783        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3784
3785        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3789    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3790        to = expression.this
3791        value = expression.expression
3792        style = expression.args.get("style")
3793        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3794        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3795
3796        if not to or not value:
3797            return ""
3798
3799        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3800        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3801            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3802
3803        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3804        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3805
3806        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3807        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3808            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3809
3810            style_value = style.name
3811            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3812            if not converted_style:
3813                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3814
3815            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3816
3817            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3818                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3819            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3820                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3821            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3822                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3823            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3824                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3825
3826        if not transformed:
3827            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3828
3829        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3885    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3886        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3887
3888        if expression.expressions:
3889            upper = option.upper()
3890
3891            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3892            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3893
3894            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3895            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3896            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3897            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3898
3899        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3900
3901        if not value:
3902            return option
3903
3904        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3905
3906        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3908    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3909        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3910        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3911            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3912            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3913            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3914        else:
3915            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3916            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3917            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3918
3919        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3920        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3921
3922        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3923        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3924
3925        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3926        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3927
3928        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3929        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3930
3931        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3933    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3935        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3936
3937        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3938        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3939        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3940        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3941
3942        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3943        params = self.expressions(
3944            expression,
3945            key="params",
3946            sep=sep,
3947            new_line=True,
3948            skip_last=True,
3949            skip_first=True,
3950            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3951        )
3952
3953        if params:
3954            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3955                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3956            elif not self.pretty:
3957                params = f" {params}"
3958
3959        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3961    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3962        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3964    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3965        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3966        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3967        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3968        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3969        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3970
3971        if filter_col or retention_period:
3972            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3973
3974        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
3976    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3977        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3978    ) -> str:
3979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3981        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3982        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
3984    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3986        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3987        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3989    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3990        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3992    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3994        expr = expression.expression
3995
3996        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
3997            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
3998            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
3999        else:
4000            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4001
4002        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4004    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4005        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4006            return self.sql(expression.this)
4007
4008        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)