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In GNU C, you declare certain things about functions called in your program which help the compiler optimize function calls and check your code more carefully.
The keyword __attribute__
allows you to specify special
attributes when making a declaration. This keyword is followed by an
attribute specification inside double parentheses. Nine attributes,
noreturn
, const
, format
,
no_instrument_function
, section
,
constructor
, destructor
, unused
and weak
are
currently defined for functions. Other attributes, including
section
are supported for variables declarations (see section Specifying Attributes of Variables) and for types (see section Specifying Attributes of Types).
You may also specify attributes with `__' preceding and following
each keyword. This allows you to use them in header files without
being concerned about a possible macro of the same name. For example,
you may use __noreturn__
instead of noreturn
.
noreturn
A few standard library functions, such as abort
and exit
,
cannot return. GNU CC knows this automatically. Some programs define
their own functions that never return. You can declare them
noreturn
to tell the compiler this fact. For example,
void fatal () __attribute__ ((noreturn)); void fatal (…) { … /* Print error message. */ … exit (1); } |
The noreturn
keyword tells the compiler to assume that
fatal
cannot return. It can then optimize without regard to what
would happen if fatal
ever did return. This makes slightly
better code. More importantly, it helps avoid spurious warnings of
uninitialized variables.
Do not assume that registers saved by the calling function are
restored before calling the noreturn
function.
It does not make sense for a noreturn
function to have a return
type other than void
.
The attribute noreturn
is not implemented in GNU C versions
earlier than 2.5. An alternative way to declare that a function does
not return, which works in the current version and in some older
versions, is as follows:
typedef void voidfn (); volatile voidfn fatal; |
const
Many functions do not examine any values except their arguments, and
have no effects except the return value. Such a function can be subject
to common subexpression elimination and loop optimization just as an
arithmetic operator would be. These functions should be declared
with the attribute const
. For example,
int square (int) __attribute__ ((const)); |
says that the hypothetical function square
is safe to call
fewer times than the program says.
The attribute const
is not implemented in GNU C versions earlier
than 2.5. An alternative way to declare that a function has no side
effects, which works in the current version and in some older versions,
is as follows:
typedef int intfn (); extern const intfn square; |
This approach does not work in GNU C++ from 2.6.0 on, since the language specifies that the `const' must be attached to the return value.
Note that a function that has pointer arguments and examines the data
pointed to must not be declared const
. Likewise, a
function that calls a non-const
function usually must not be
const
. It does not make sense for a const
function to
return void
.
format (archetype, string-index, first-to-check)
The format
attribute specifies that a function takes printf
,
scanf
, or strftime
style arguments which should be type-checked
against a format string. For example, the declaration:
extern int my_printf (void *my_object, const char *my_format, ...) __attribute__ ((format (printf, 2, 3))); |
causes the compiler to check the arguments in calls to my_printf
for consistency with the printf
style format string argument
my_format
.
The parameter archetype determines how the format string is
interpreted, and should be either printf
, scanf
, or
strftime
. The
parameter string-index specifies which argument is the format
string argument (starting from 1), while first-to-check is the
number of the first argument to check against the format string. For
functions where the arguments are not available to be checked (such as
vprintf
), specify the third parameter as zero. In this case the
compiler only checks the format string for consistency.
In the example above, the format string (my_format
) is the second
argument of the function my_print
, and the arguments to check
start with the third argument, so the correct parameters for the format
attribute are 2 and 3.
The format
attribute allows you to identify your own functions
which take format strings as arguments, so that GNU CC can check the
calls to these functions for errors. The compiler always checks formats
for the ANSI library functions printf
, fprintf
,
sprintf
, scanf
, fscanf
, sscanf
, strftime
,
vprintf
, vfprintf
and vsprintf
whenever such
warnings are requested (using `-Wformat'), so there is no need to
modify the header file `stdio.h'.
format_arg (string-index)
The format_arg
attribute specifies that a function takes
printf
or scanf
style arguments, modifies it (for example,
to translate it into another language), and passes it to a printf
or scanf
style function. For example, the declaration:
extern char * my_dgettext (char *my_domain, const char *my_format) __attribute__ ((format_arg (2))); |
causes the compiler to check the arguments in calls to
my_dgettext
whose result is passed to a printf
,
scanf
, or strftime
type function for consistency with the
printf
style format string argument my_format
.
The parameter string-index specifies which argument is the format string argument (starting from 1).
The format-arg
attribute allows you to identify your own
functions which modify format strings, so that GNU CC can check the
calls to printf
, scanf
, or strftime
function whose
operands are a call to one of your own function. The compiler always
treats gettext
, dgettext
, and dcgettext
in this
manner.
no_instrument_function
If `-finstrument-functions' is given, profiling function calls will be generated at entry and exit of most user-compiled functions. Functions with this attribute will not be so instrumented.
section ("section-name")
Normally, the compiler places the code it generates in the text
section.
Sometimes, however, you need additional sections, or you need certain
particular functions to appear in special sections. The section
attribute specifies that a function lives in a particular section.
For example, the declaration:
extern void foobar (void) __attribute__ ((section ("bar"))); |
puts the function foobar
in the bar
section.
Some file formats do not support arbitrary sections so the section
attribute is not available on all platforms.
If you need to map the entire contents of a module to a particular
section, consider using the facilities of the linker instead.
constructor
destructor
The constructor
attribute causes the function to be called
automatically before execution enters main ()
. Similarly, the
destructor
attribute causes the function to be called
automatically after main ()
has completed or exit ()
has
been called. Functions with these attributes are useful for
initializing data that will be used implicitly during the execution of
the program.
These attributes are not currently implemented for Objective C.
unused
This attribute, attached to a function, means that the function is meant to be possibly unused. GNU CC will not produce a warning for this function. GNU C++ does not currently support this attribute as definitions without parameters are valid in C++.
weak
The weak
attribute causes the declaration to be emitted as a weak
symbol rather than a global. This is primarily useful in defining
library functions which can be overridden in user code, though it can
also be used with non-function declarations. Weak symbols are supported
for ELF targets, and also for a.out targets when using the GNU assembler
and linker.
alias ("target")
The alias
attribute causes the declaration to be emitted as an
alias for another symbol, which must be specified. For instance,
void __f () { /* do something */; } void f () __attribute__ ((weak, alias ("__f"))); |
declares `f' to be a weak alias for `__f'. In C++, the mangled name for the target must be used.
Not all target machines support this attribute.
no_check_memory_usage
If `-fcheck-memory-usage' is given, calls to support routines will
be generated before most memory accesses, to permit support code to
record usage and detect uses of uninitialized or unallocated storage.
Since the compiler cannot handle them properly, asm
statements
are not allowed. Declaring a function with this attribute disables the
memory checking code for that function, permitting the use of asm
statements without requiring separate compilation with different
options, and allowing you to write support routines of your own if you
wish, without getting infinite recursion if they get compiled with this
option.
regparm (number)
On the Intel 386, the regparm
attribute causes the compiler to
pass up to number integer arguments in registers EAX,
EDX, and ECX instead of on the stack. Functions that take a
variable number of arguments will continue to be passed all of their
arguments on the stack.
stdcall
On the Intel 386, the stdcall
attribute causes the compiler to
assume that the called function will pop off the stack space used to
pass arguments, unless it takes a variable number of arguments.
The PowerPC compiler for Windows NT currently ignores the stdcall
attribute.
cdecl
On the Intel 386, the cdecl
attribute causes the compiler to
assume that the calling function will pop off the stack space used to
pass arguments. This is
useful to override the effects of the `-mrtd' switch.
The PowerPC compiler for Windows NT currently ignores the cdecl
attribute.
longcall
On the RS/6000 and PowerPC, the longcall
attribute causes the
compiler to always call the function via a pointer, so that functions
which reside further than 64 megabytes (67,108,864 bytes) from the
current location can be called.
dllimport
On the PowerPC running Windows NT, the dllimport
attribute causes
the compiler to call the function via a global pointer to the function
pointer that is set up by the Windows NT dll library. The pointer name
is formed by combining __imp_
and the function name.
dllexport
On the PowerPC running Windows NT, the dllexport
attribute causes
the compiler to provide a global pointer to the function pointer, so
that it can be called with the dllimport
attribute. The pointer
name is formed by combining __imp_
and the function name.
exception (except-func [, except-arg])
On the PowerPC running Windows NT, the exception
attribute causes
the compiler to modify the structured exception table entry it emits for
the declared function. The string or identifier except-func is
placed in the third entry of the structured exception table. It
represents a function, which is called by the exception handling
mechanism if an exception occurs. If it was specified, the string or
identifier except-arg is placed in the fourth entry of the
structured exception table.
function_vector
Use this option on the H8/300 and H8/300H to indicate that the specified function should be called through the function vector. Calling a function through the function vector will reduce code size, however; the function vector has a limited size (maximum 128 entries on the H8/300 and 64 entries on the H8/300H) and shares space with the interrupt vector.
You must use GAS and GLD from GNU binutils version 2.7 or later for this option to work correctly.
interrupt_handler
Use this option on the H8/300 and H8/300H to indicate that the specified function is an interrupt handler. The compiler will generate function entry and exit sequences suitable for use in an interrupt handler when this attribute is present.
eightbit_data
Use this option on the H8/300 and H8/300H to indicate that the specified variable should be placed into the eight bit data section. The compiler will generate more efficient code for certain operations on data in the eight bit data area. Note the eight bit data area is limited to 256 bytes of data.
You must use GAS and GLD from GNU binutils version 2.7 or later for this option to work correctly.
tiny_data
Use this option on the H8/300H to indicate that the specified variable should be placed into the tiny data section. The compiler will generate more efficient code for loads and stores on data in the tiny data section. Note the tiny data area is limited to slightly under 32kbytes of data.
interrupt
Use this option on the M32R/D to indicate that the specified function is an interrupt handler. The compiler will generate function entry and exit sequences suitable for use in an interrupt handler when this attribute is present.
model (model-name)
Use this attribute on the M32R/D to set the addressability of an object,
and the code generated for a function.
The identifier model-name is one of small
, medium
,
or large
, representing each of the code models.
Small model objects live in the lower 16MB of memory (so that their
addresses can be loaded with the ld24
instruction), and are
callable with the bl
instruction.
Medium model objects may live anywhere in the 32 bit address space (the
compiler will generate seth/add3
instructions to load their addresses),
and are callable with the bl
instruction.
Large model objects may live anywhere in the 32 bit address space (the
compiler will generate seth/add3
instructions to load their addresses),
and may not be reachable with the bl
instruction (the compiler will
generate the much slower seth/add3/jl
instruction sequence).
You can specify multiple attributes in a declaration by separating them by commas within the double parentheses or by immediately following an attribute declaration with another attribute declaration.
Some people object to the __attribute__
feature, suggesting that ANSI C's
#pragma
should be used instead. There are two reasons for not
doing this.
#pragma
commands from a macro.
#pragma
might mean in another
compiler.
These two reasons apply to almost any application that might be proposed
for #pragma
. It is basically a mistake to use #pragma
for
anything.
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