Command that fit in no special category

jot, seq

These utilities emit a sequence of integers, with a user-selectable increment.

The default separator character between each integer is a newline, but this can be changed with the -s option.

bash$ seq 5
1
 2
 3
 4
 5



bash$ seq -s : 5
1:2:3:4:5
	      

Both jot and seq come in handy in a for loop.

Example 16.54. Using seq to generate loop arguments

#!/bin/bash
# Using "seq"

echo

for a in `seq 80`  # or   for a in $( seq 80 )
# Same as   for a in 1 2 3 4 5 ... 80   (saves much typing!).
# May also use 'jot' (if present on system).
do
  echo -n "$a "
done      # 1 2 3 4 5 ... 80
# Example of using the output of a command to generate 
# the [list] in a "for" loop.

echo; echo


COUNT=80  # Yes, 'seq' also accepts a replaceable parameter.

for a in `seq $COUNT`  # or   for a in $( seq $COUNT )
do
  echo -n "$a "
done      # 1 2 3 4 5 ... 80

echo; echo

BEGIN=75
END=80

for a in `seq $BEGIN $END`
#  Giving "seq" two arguments starts the count at the first one,
#+ and continues until it reaches the second.
do
  echo -n "$a "
done      # 75 76 77 78 79 80

echo; echo

BEGIN=45
INTERVAL=5
END=80

for a in `seq $BEGIN $INTERVAL $END`
#  Giving "seq" three arguments starts the count at the first one,
#+ uses the second for a step interval,
#+ and continues until it reaches the third.
do
  echo -n "$a "
done      # 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

echo; echo

exit 0

A simpler example:

#  Create a set of 10 files,
#+ named file.1, file.2 . . . file.10.
COUNT=10
PREFIX=file

for filename in `seq $COUNT`
do
  touch $PREFIX.$filename
  #  Or, can do other operations,
  #+ such as rm, grep, etc.
done

Example 16.55. Letter Count"

#!/bin/bash
# letter-count.sh: Counting letter occurrences in a text file.
# Written by Stefano Palmeri.
# Used in ABS Guide with permission.
# Slightly modified by document author.

MINARGS=2          # Script requires at least two arguments.
E_BADARGS=65
FILE=$1

let LETTERS=$#-1   # How many letters specified (as command-line args).
                   # (Subtract 1 from number of command-line args.)


show_help(){
	   echo
           echo Usage: `basename $0` file letters  
           echo Note: `basename $0` arguments are case sensitive.
           echo Example: `basename $0` foobar.txt G n U L i N U x.
	   echo
}

# Checks number of arguments.
if [ $# -lt $MINARGS ]; then
   echo
   echo "Not enough arguments."
   echo
   show_help
   exit $E_BADARGS
fi  


# Checks if file exists.
if [ ! -f $FILE ]; then
    echo "File \"$FILE\" does not exist."
    exit $E_BADARGS
fi



# Counts letter occurrences .
for n in `seq $LETTERS`; do
      shift
      if [[ `echo -n "$1" | wc -c` -eq 1 ]]; then             #  Checks arg.
             echo "$1" -\> `cat $FILE | tr -cd  "$1" | wc -c` #  Counting.
      else
             echo "$1 is not a  single char."
      fi  
done

exit $?

#  This script has exactly the same functionality as letter-count2.sh,
#+ but executes faster.
#  Why?

Note

Somewhat more capable than seq, jot is a classic UNIX utility that is not normally included in a standard Linux distro. However, the source rpm is available for download from the MIT repository.

Unlike seq, jot can generate a sequence of random numbers, using the -r option.

bash$ jot -r 3 999
1069
 1272
 1428

getopt

The getopt command parses command-line options preceded by a dash. This external command corresponds to the getopts Bash builtin. Using getopt permits handling long options by means of the -l flag, and this also allows parameter reshuffling.

Example 16.56. Using getopt to parse command-line options

#!/bin/bash
# Using getopt

# Try the following when invoking this script:
#   sh ex33a.sh -a
#   sh ex33a.sh -abc
#   sh ex33a.sh -a -b -c
#   sh ex33a.sh -d
#   sh ex33a.sh -dXYZ
#   sh ex33a.sh -d XYZ
#   sh ex33a.sh -abcd
#   sh ex33a.sh -abcdZ
#   sh ex33a.sh -z
#   sh ex33a.sh a
# Explain the results of each of the above.

E_OPTERR=65

if [ "$#" -eq 0 ]
then   # Script needs at least one command-line argument.
  echo "Usage $0 -[options a,b,c]"
  exit $E_OPTERR
fi  

set -- `getopt "abcd:" "$@"`
# Sets positional parameters to command-line arguments.
# What happens if you use "$*" instead of "$@"?

while [ ! -z "$1" ]
do
  case "$1" in
    -a) echo "Option \"a\"";;
    -b) echo "Option \"b\"";;
    -c) echo "Option \"c\"";;
    -d) echo "Option \"d\" $2";;
     *) break;;
  esac

  shift
done

#  It is usually better to use the 'getopts' builtin in a script.
#  See "ex33.sh."

exit 0

Note

As Peggy Russell points out:

It is often necessary to include an eval to correctly process whitespace and quotes.

args=$(getopt -o a:bc:d -- "$@")
eval set -- "$args"

See Example 10.5, “Emulating getopt” for a simplified emulation of getopt.

run-parts

The run-parts command ^[82] executes all the scripts in a target directory, sequentially in ASCII-sorted filename order. Of course, the scripts need to have execute permission.

The cron daemon invokes run-parts to run the scripts in the /etc/cron.* directories.

yes

In its default behavior the yes command feeds a continuous string of the character y followed by a line feed to stdout. A control+C terminates the run. A different output string may be specified, as in yes different string, which would continually output different string to stdout.

One might well ask the purpose of this. From the command-line or in a script, the output of yes can be redirected or piped into a program expecting user input. In effect, this becomes a sort of poor man's version of expect.

yes | fsck /dev/hda1 runs fsck non-interactively (careful!).

yes | rm -r dirname has same effect as rm -rf dirname (careful!).

Warning

Caution advised when piping yes to a potentially dangerous system command, such as fsck or fdisk. It might have unintended consequences.

Note

The yes command parses variables, or more accurately, it echoes parsed variables. For example:

bash$ yes $BASH_VERSION
3.1.17(1)-release
 3.1.17(1)-release
 3.1.17(1)-release
 3.1.17(1)-release
 3.1.17(1)-release
 . . .
	      

This particular “feature” may be used to create a very large ASCII file on the fly:

bash$ yes $PATH > huge_file.txt
Ctl-C	      
	      

Hit Ctl-C very quickly, or you just might get more than you bargained for. . . .

The yes command may be emulated in a very simple script function.

yes ()
{ # Trivial emulation of "yes" ...
  local DEFAULT_TEXT="y"
  while [ true ]   # Endless loop.
  do
    if [ -z "$1" ]
    then
      echo "$DEFAULT_TEXT"
    else           # If argument ...
      echo "$1"    # ... expand and echo it.
    fi
  done             #  The only things missing are the
}                  #+ --help and --version options.

banner

Prints arguments as a large vertical banner to stdout, using an ASCII character (default '#'). This may be redirected to a printer for hardcopy.

Note that banner has been dropped from many Linux distros, presumably because it is no longer considered useful.

printenv

Show all the environmental variables set for a particular user.

bash$ printenv | grep HOME
HOME=/home/bozo
	      

lp

The lp and lpr commands send file(s) to the print queue, to be printed as hard copy. ^[83] These commands trace the origin of their names to the line printers of another era. ^[84]

bash$ lp file1.txt or bash lp <file1.txt

It is often useful to pipe the formatted output from pr to lp.

bash$ pr -options file1.txt | lp

Formatting packages, such as groff and Ghostscript may send their output directly to lp.

bash$ groff -Tascii file.tr | lp

bash$ gs -options | lp file.ps

Related commands are lpq, for viewing the print queue, and lprm, for removing jobs from the print queue.

tee

[UNIX borrows an idea from the plumbing trade.]

This is a redirection operator, but with a difference. Like the plumber's tee, it permits “siphoning off” to a file the output of a command or commands within a pipe, but without affecting the result. This is useful for printing an ongoing process to a file or paper, perhaps to keep track of it for debugging purposes.

                             (redirection)
                            |----> to file
                            |
  ==========================|====================
  command ---> command ---> |tee ---> command ---> ---> output of pipe
  ===============================================
	      

cat listfile* | sort | tee check.file | uniq > result.file
#                      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^   ^^^^    

#  The file "check.file" contains the concatenated sorted "listfiles,"
#+ before the duplicate lines are removed by 'uniq.'

mkfifo

This obscure command creates a named pipe, a temporary first-in-first-out buffer for transferring data between processes. ^[85] Typically, one process writes to the FIFO, and the other reads from it. See Example A.14, “fifo: Making daily backups, using named pipes”.

#!/bin/bash
# This short script by Omair Eshkenazi.
# Used in ABS Guide with permission (thanks!).

mkfifo pipe1   # Yes, pipes can be given names.
mkfifo pipe2   # Hence the designation "named pipe."

(cut -d' ' -f1 | tr "a-z" "A-Z") >pipe2 <pipe1 &
ls -l | tr -s ' ' | cut -d' ' -f3,9- | tee pipe1 |
cut -d' ' -f2 | paste - pipe2

rm -f pipe1
rm -f pipe2

# No need to kill background processes when script terminates (why not?).

exit $?

Now, invoke the script and explain the output:
sh mkfifo-example.sh

4830.tar.gz          BOZO
pipe1   BOZO
pipe2   BOZO
mkfifo-example.sh    BOZO
Mixed.msg BOZO

pathchk

This command checks the validity of a filename. If the filename exceeds the maximum allowable length (255 characters) or one or more of the directories in its path is not searchable, then an error message results.

Unfortunately, pathchk does not return a recognizable error code, and it is therefore pretty much useless in a script. Consider instead the file test operators.

dd

Though this somewhat obscure and much feared data duplicator command originated as a utility for exchanging data on magnetic tapes between UNIX minicomputers and IBM mainframes, it still has its uses. The dd command simply copies a file (or stdin/stdout), but with conversions. Possible conversions include ASCII/EBCDIC, ^[86] upper/lower case, swapping of byte pairs between input and output, and skipping and/or truncating the head or tail of the input file.

# Converting a file to all uppercase:

dd if=$filename conv=ucase > $filename.uppercase
#                    lcase   # For lower case conversion

Some basic options to dd are:

• if=INFILE

  INFILE is the source file.

• of=OUTFILE

  OUTFILE is the target file, the file that will have the data written to it.

• bs=BLOCKSIZE

  This is the size of each block of data being read and written, usually a power of 2.

• skip=BLOCKS

  How many blocks of data to skip in INFILE before starting to copy. This is useful when the INFILE has “garbage” or garbled data in its header or when it is desirable to copy only a portion of the INFILE.

• seek=BLOCKS

  How many blocks of data to skip in OUTFILE before starting to copy, leaving blank data at beginning of OUTFILE.

• count=BLOCKS

  Copy only this many blocks of data, rather than the entire INFILE.

• conv=CONVERSION

  Type of conversion to be applied to INFILE data before copying operation.

A dd --help lists all the options this powerful utility takes.

Example 16.57. A script that copies itself

#!/bin/bash
# self-copy.sh

# This script copies itself.

file_subscript=copy

dd if=$0 of=$0.$file_subscript 2>/dev/null
# Suppress messages from dd:   ^^^^^^^^^^^

exit $?

#  A program whose only output is its own source code
#+ is called a "quine" per Willard Quine.
#  Does this script qualify as a quine?

Example 16.58. Exercising dd

#!/bin/bash
# exercising-dd.sh

# Script by Stephane Chazelas.
# Somewhat modified by ABS Guide author.

infile=$0           # This script.
outfile=log.txt     # Output file left behind.
n=8
p=11

dd if=$infile of=$outfile bs=1 skip=$((n-1)) count=$((p-n+1)) 2> /dev/null
# Extracts characters n to p (8 to 11) from this script ("bash").

# ----------------------------------------------------------------

echo -n "hello vertical world" | dd cbs=1 conv=unblock 2> /dev/null
# Echoes "hello vertical world" vertically downward.
# Why? A newline follows each character dd emits.

exit $?

To demonstrate just how versatile dd is, let's use it to capture keystrokes.

Example 16.59. Capturing Keystrokes

#!/bin/bash
# dd-keypress.sh: Capture keystrokes without needing to press ENTER.


keypresses=4                      # Number of keypresses to capture.


old_tty_setting=$(stty -g)        # Save old terminal settings.

echo "Press $keypresses keys."
stty -icanon -echo                # Disable canonical mode.
                                  # Disable local echo.
keys=$(dd bs=1 count=$keypresses 2> /dev/null)
# 'dd' uses stdin, if "if" (input file) not specified.

stty "$old_tty_setting"           # Restore old terminal settings.

echo "You pressed the \"$keys\" keys."

# Thanks, Stephane Chazelas, for showing the way.
exit 0

The dd command can do random access on a data stream.

echo -n . | dd bs=1 seek=4 of=file conv=notrunc
#  The "conv=notrunc" option means that the output file
#+ will not be truncated.

# Thanks, S.C.

The dd command can copy raw data and disk images to and from devices, such as floppies and tape drives (Example A.5, “copy-cd: Copying a data CD”). A common use is creating boot floppies.

dd if=kernel-image of=/dev/fd0H1440

Similarly, dd can copy the entire contents of a floppy, even one formatted with a “foreign” OS, to the hard drive as an image file.

dd if=/dev/fd0 of=/home/bozo/projects/floppy.img

Likewise, dd can create bootable flash drives and SD cards.

dd if=image.iso of=/dev/sdb

Example 16.60. Preparing a bootable SD card for the Raspberry Pi

#!/bin/bash
# rp.sdcard.sh
# Preparing an SD card with a bootable image for the Raspberry Pi.

# $1 = imagefile name
# $2 = sdcard (device file)
# Otherwise defaults to the defaults, see below.

DEFAULTbs=4M                                 # Block size, 4 mb default.
DEFAULTif="2013-07-26-wheezy-raspbian.img"   # Commonly used distro.
DEFAULTsdcard="/dev/mmcblk0"                 # May be different. Check!
ROOTUSER_NAME=root                           # Must run as root!
E_NOTROOT=81
E_NOIMAGE=82

username=$(id -nu)                           # Who is running this script?
if [ "$username" != "$ROOTUSER_NAME" ]
then
  echo "This script must run as root or with root privileges."
  exit $E_NOTROOT
fi

if [ -n "$1" ]
then
  imagefile="$1"
else
  imagefile="$DEFAULTif"
fi

if [ -n "$2" ]
then
  sdcard="$2"
else
  sdcard="$DEFAULTsdcard"
fi

if [ ! -e $imagefile ]
then
  echo "Image file \"$imagefile\" not found!"
  exit $E_NOIMAGE
fi

echo "Last chance to change your mind!"; echo
read -s -n1 -p "Hit a key to write $imagefile to $sdcard [Ctl-c to exit]."
echo; echo

echo "Writing $imagefile to $sdcard ..."
dd bs=$DEFAULTbs if=$imagefile of=$sdcard

exit $?

# Exercises:
# ---------
# 1) Provide additional error checking.
# 2) Have script autodetect device file for SD card (difficult!).
# 3) Have script sutodetect image file (*img) in $PWD.

Other applications of dd include initializing temporary swap files (Example 31.2, “Setting up a swapfile using /dev/zero”) and ramdisks (Example 31.3, “Creating a ramdisk”). It can even do a low-level copy of an entire hard drive partition, although this is not necessarily recommended.

People (with presumably nothing better to do with their time) are constantly thinking of interesting applications of dd.

Example 16.61. Securely deleting a file

#!/bin/bash
# blot-out.sh: Erase "all" traces of a file.

#  This script overwrites a target file alternately
#+ with random bytes, then zeros before finally deleting it.
#  After that, even examining the raw disk sectors by conventional methods
#+ will not reveal the original file data.

PASSES=7         #  Number of file-shredding passes.
                 #  Increasing this slows script execution,
                 #+ especially on large target files.
BLOCKSIZE=1      #  I/O with /dev/urandom requires unit block size,
                 #+ otherwise you get weird results.
E_BADARGS=70     #  Various error exit codes.
E_NOT_FOUND=71
E_CHANGED_MIND=72

if [ -z "$1" ]   # No filename specified.
then
  echo "Usage: `basename $0` filename"
  exit $E_BADARGS
fi

file=$1

if [ ! -e "$file" ]
then
  echo "File \"$file\" not found."
  exit $E_NOT_FOUND
fi  

echo; echo -n "Are you absolutely sure you want to blot out \"$file\" (y/n)? "
read answer
case "$answer" in
[nN]) echo "Changed your mind, huh?"
      exit $E_CHANGED_MIND
      ;;
*)    echo "Blotting out file \"$file\".";;
esac


flength=$(ls -l "$file" | awk '{print $5}')  # Field 5 is file length.
pass_count=1

chmod u+w "$file"   # Allow overwriting/deleting the file.

echo

while [ "$pass_count" -le "$PASSES" ]
do
  echo "Pass #$pass_count"
  sync         # Flush buffers.
  dd if=/dev/urandom of=$file bs=$BLOCKSIZE count=$flength
               # Fill with random bytes.
  sync         # Flush buffers again.
  dd if=/dev/zero of=$file bs=$BLOCKSIZE count=$flength
               # Fill with zeros.
  sync         # Flush buffers yet again.
  let "pass_count += 1"
  echo
done  


rm -f $file    # Finally, delete scrambled and shredded file.
sync           # Flush buffers a final time.

echo "File \"$file\" blotted out and deleted."; echo


exit 0

#  This is a fairly secure, if inefficient and slow method
#+ of thoroughly "shredding" a file.
#  The "shred" command, part of the GNU "fileutils" package,
#+ does the same thing, although more efficiently.

#  The file cannot not be "undeleted" or retrieved by normal methods.
#  However . . .
#+ this simple method would *not* likely withstand
#+ sophisticated forensic analysis.

#  This script may not play well with a journaled file system.
#  Exercise (difficult): Fix it so it does.



#  Tom Vier's "wipe" file-deletion package does a much more thorough job
#+ of file shredding than this simple script.
#     http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/utils/file/wipe-2.0.0.tar.bz2

#  For an in-depth analysis on the topic of file deletion and security,
#+ see Peter Gutmann's paper,
#+     "Secure Deletion of Data From Magnetic and Solid-State Memory".
#       http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~pgut001/pubs/secure_del.html

See also the dd thread entry in the bibliography.

od

The od, or octal dump filter converts input (or files) to octal (base-8) or other bases. This is useful for viewing or processing binary data files or otherwise unreadable system device files, such as /dev/urandom, and as a filter for binary data.

head -c4 /dev/urandom | od -N4 -tu4 | sed -ne '1s/.* //p'
# Sample output: 1324725719, 3918166450, 2989231420, etc.

# From rnd.sh example script, by Stéphane Chazelas

See also Example 9.16, “Reseeding RANDOM” and Example A.36, “Insertion sort”.

hexdump

Performs a hexadecimal, octal, decimal, or ASCII dump of a binary file. This command is the rough equivalent of od, above, but not nearly as useful. May be used to view the contents of a binary file, in combination with dd and less.

dd if=/bin/ls | hexdump -C | less
# The -C option nicely formats the output in tabular form.

objdump

Displays information about an object file or binary executable in either hexadecimal form or as a disassembled listing (with the -d option).

bash$ objdump -d /bin/ls
/bin/ls:     file format elf32-i386

 Disassembly of section .init:

 080490bc <.init>:
  80490bc:       55                      push   %ebp
  80490bd:       89 e5                   mov    %esp,%ebp
  . . .
	      

mcookie

This command generates a “magic cookie,” a 128-bit (32-character) pseudorandom hexadecimal number, normally used as an authorization “signature” by the X server. This also available for use in a script as a “quick 'n dirty” random number.

random000=$(mcookie)

Of course, a script could use md5sum for the same purpose.

# Generate md5 checksum on the script itself.
random001=`md5sum $0 | awk '{print $1}'`
# Uses 'awk' to strip off the filename.

The mcookie command gives yet another way to generate a “unique” filename.

Example 16.62. Filename generator

#!/bin/bash
# tempfile-name.sh:  temp filename generator

BASE_STR=`mcookie`   # 32-character magic cookie.
POS=11               # Arbitrary position in magic cookie string.
LEN=5                # Get $LEN consecutive characters.

prefix=temp          #  This is, after all, a "temp" file.
                     #  For more "uniqueness," generate the
                     #+ filename prefix using the same method
                     #+ as the suffix, below.

suffix=${BASE_STR:POS:LEN}
                     #  Extract a 5-character string,
                     #+ starting at position 11.

temp_filename=$prefix.$suffix
                     # Construct the filename.

echo "Temp filename = "$temp_filename""

# sh tempfile-name.sh
# Temp filename = temp.e19ea

#  Compare this method of generating "unique" filenames
#+ with the 'date' method in ex51.sh.

exit 0

units

This utility converts between different units of measure. While normally invoked in interactive mode, units may find use in a script.

Example 16.63. Converting meters to miles

#!/bin/bash
# unit-conversion.sh
# Must have 'units' utility installed.


convert_units ()  # Takes as arguments the units to convert.
{
  cf=$(units "$1" "$2" | sed --silent -e '1p' | awk '{print $2}')
  # Strip off everything except the actual conversion factor.
  echo "$cf"
}  

Unit1=miles
Unit2=meters
cfactor=`convert_units $Unit1 $Unit2`
quantity=3.73

result=$(echo $quantity*$cfactor | bc)

echo "There are $result $Unit2 in $quantity $Unit1."

#  What happens if you pass incompatible units,
#+ such as "acres" and "miles" to the function?

exit 0

# Exercise: Edit this script to accept command-line parameters,
#           with appropriate error checking, of course.

m4

A hidden treasure, m4 is a powerful macro ^[87] processing filter, virtually a complete language. Although originally written as a pre-processor for RatFor, m4 turned out to be useful as a stand-alone utility. In fact, m4 combines some of the functionality of eval, tr, and awk, in addition to its extensive macro expansion facilities.

The April, 2002 issue of Linux Journal has a very nice article on m4 and its uses.

Example 16.64. Using m4

#!/bin/bash
# m4.sh: Using the m4 macro processor

# Strings
string=abcdA01
echo "len($string)" | m4                            #   7
echo "substr($string,4)" | m4                       # A01
echo "regexp($string,[0-1][0-1],\&Z)" | m4      # 01Z

# Arithmetic
var=99
echo "incr($var)" | m4                              #  100
echo "eval($var / 3)" | m4                          #   33

exit

xmessage

This X-based variant of echo pops up a message/query window on the desktop.

xmessage Left click to continue -button okay

zenity

The zenity utility is adept at displaying GTK+ dialog widgets and very suitable for scripting purposes.

doexec

The doexec command enables passing an arbitrary list of arguments to a binary executable. In particular, passing argv[0] (which corresponds to $0 in a script) lets the executable be invoked by various names, and it can then carry out different sets of actions, according to the name by which it was called. What this amounts to is roundabout way of passing options to an executable.

For example, the /usr/local/bin directory might contain a binary called “aaa”. Invoking doexec /usr/local/bin/aaa list would list all those files in the current working directory beginning with an “a”, while invoking (the same executable with) doexec /usr/local/bin/aaa delete would delete those files.

Note

The various behaviors of the executable must be defined within the code of the executable itself, analogous to something like the following in a shell script:

case `basename $0` in
"name1" ) do_something;;
"name2" ) do_something_else;;
"name3" ) do_yet_another_thing;;
*       ) bail_out;;
esac

dialog

The dialog family of tools provide a method of calling interactive “dialog” boxes from a script. The more elaborate variations of dialog -- gdialog, Xdialog, and kdialog -- actually invoke X-Windows widgets.

sox

The sox, or “sound exchange” command plays and performs transformations on sound files. In fact, the /usr/bin/play executable (now deprecated) is nothing but a shell wrapper for sox.

For example, sox soundfile.wav soundfile.au changes a WAV sound file into a (Sun audio format) AU sound file.

Shell scripts are ideally suited for batch-processing sox operations on sound files. For examples, see the Linux Radio Timeshift HOWTO and the MP3do Project.